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-- --------------------------------------------------------

--
-- Table structure for table `teac_posts`
--

CREATE TABLE `teac_posts` (
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  `post_author` bigint UNSIGNED NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `post_date` datetime NOT NULL DEFAULT '0000-00-00 00:00:00',
  `post_date_gmt` datetime NOT NULL DEFAULT '0000-00-00 00:00:00',
  `post_content` longtext CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL,
  `post_title` text CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL,
  `post_excerpt` text CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL,
  `post_status` varchar(20) CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL DEFAULT 'publish',
  `comment_status` varchar(20) CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL DEFAULT 'open',
  `ping_status` varchar(20) CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL DEFAULT 'open',
  `post_password` varchar(255) CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `post_name` varchar(200) CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `to_ping` text CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL,
  `pinged` text CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL,
  `post_modified` datetime NOT NULL DEFAULT '0000-00-00 00:00:00',
  `post_modified_gmt` datetime NOT NULL DEFAULT '0000-00-00 00:00:00',
  `post_content_filtered` longtext CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL,
  `post_parent` bigint UNSIGNED NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `guid` varchar(2048) COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci DEFAULT NULL,
  `menu_order` int NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
  `post_type` varchar(20) CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL DEFAULT 'post',
  `post_mime_type` varchar(100) CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
  `comment_count` bigint NOT NULL DEFAULT '0'
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 COLLATE=utf8mb4_unicode_520_ci;

--
-- Dumping data for table `teac_posts`
--

INSERT INTO `teac_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(2, 1, '2023-02-04 09:07:27', '2023-02-04 09:07:27', '<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>This is an example page. It\'s different from a blog post because it will stay in one place and will show up in your site navigation (in most themes). Most people start with an About page that introduces them to potential site visitors. It might say something like this:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:quote -->\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote\"><p>Hi there! I\'m a bike messenger by day, aspiring actor by night, and this is my website. I live in Los Angeles, have a great dog named Jack, and I like pi&#241;a coladas. (And gettin\' caught in the rain.)</p></blockquote>\n<!-- /wp:quote -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>...or something like this:</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\n\n<!-- wp:quote -->\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote\"><p>The XYZ Doohickey Company was founded in 1971, and has been providing quality doohickeys to the public ever since. Located in Gotham City, XYZ employs over 2,000 people and does all kinds of awesome things for the Gotham community.</p></blockquote>\n<!-- /wp:quote -->\n\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\n<p>As a new WordPress user, you should go to <a href=\"https://teachers.com.ng/wp-admin/\">your dashboard</a> to delete this page and create new pages for your content. Have fun!</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Sample Page', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'sample-page', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:07:27', '2023-02-04 09:07:27', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?page_id=2', 0, 'page', '', 0),
(3, 1, '2023-02-04 09:07:27', '2023-02-04 09:07:27', '<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Who we are</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>Our website address is: https://teachers.com.ng.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Comments</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>When visitors leave comments on the site we collect the data shown in the comments form, and also the visitor’s IP address and browser user agent string to help spam detection.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>An anonymized string created from your email address (also called a hash) may be provided to the Gravatar service to see if you are using it. The Gravatar service privacy policy is available here: https://automattic.com/privacy/. After approval of your comment, your profile picture is visible to the public in the context of your comment.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Media</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p><strong class=\"privacy-policy-tutorial\"> </strong>If you upload images to the website, you should avoid uploading images with embedded location data (EXIF GPS) included. Visitors to the website can download and extract any location data from images on the website.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Cookies</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>If you leave a comment on our site you may opt-in to saving your name, email address and website in cookies. These are for your convenience so that you do not have to fill in your details again when you leave another comment. These cookies will last for one year.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>If you visit our login page, we will set a temporary cookie to determine if your browser accepts cookies. This cookie contains no personal data and is discarded when you close your browser.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>When you log in, we will also set up several cookies to save your login information and your screen display choices. Login cookies last for two days, and screen options cookies last for a year. If you select \"Remember Me\", your login will persist for two weeks. If you log out of your account, the login cookies will be removed.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>If you edit or publish an article, an additional cookie will be saved in your browser. This cookie includes no personal data and simply indicates the post ID of the article you just edited. It expires after 1 day.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Embedded content from other websites</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>Articles on this site may include embedded content (e.g. videos, images, articles, etc.). Embedded content from other websites behaves in the exact same way as if the visitor has visited the other website.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>These websites may collect data about you, use cookies, embed additional third-party tracking, and monitor your interaction with that embedded content, including tracking your interaction with the embedded content if you have an account and are logged in to that website.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Who we share your data with</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>If you request a password reset, your IP address will be included in the reset email.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>How long we retain your data</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>If you leave a comment, the comment and its metadata are retained indefinitely. This is so we can recognize and approve any follow-up comments automatically instead of holding them in a moderation queue.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>For users that register on our website (if any), we also store the personal information they provide in their user profile. All users can see, edit, or delete their personal information at any time (except they cannot change their username). Website administrators can also see and edit that information.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>What rights do you have over your data?</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p><strong class=\"privacy-policy-tutorial\"> </strong>If you have an account on this site, or have left comments, you can request to receive an exported file of the personal data we hold about you, including any data you have provided to us. You can also request that we erase any personal data we hold about you. This does not include any data we are obliged to keep for administrative, legal, or security purposes.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Where your data is sent</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>Visitor comments may be checked through an automated spam detection service.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Privacy Policy', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'privacy-policy', '', '', '2023-02-24 01:01:45', '2023-02-24 01:01:45', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?page_id=3', 0, 'page', '', 0),
(5, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:58', '2023-02-04 09:16:58', '', 'Activity', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'activity', '', '', '2023-12-30 06:39:50', '2023-12-30 06:39:50', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/activity/', 0, 'buddypress', '', 0),
(6, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:58', '2023-02-04 09:16:58', '', 'Members', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'members', '', '', '2023-12-30 06:39:50', '2023-12-30 06:39:50', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/members/', 0, 'buddypress', '', 0),
(7, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:58', '2023-02-04 09:16:58', 'Welcome to {{site.name}}!\n\nVisit your <a href=\"{{{profile.url}}}\">profile</a>, where you can tell us more about yourself, change your preferences, or make new connections, to get started.\n\nForgot your password? Don\'t worry, you can reset it with your email address from <a href=\"{{{lostpassword.url}}}\">this page</a> of our site', '[{{{site.name}}}] Welcome!', 'Welcome to {{site.name}}!\n\nVisit your profile, where you can tell us more about yourself, change your preferences, or make new connections, to get started: {{{profile.url}}}\n\nForgot your password? Don\'t worry, you can reset it with your email address from this page of our site: {{{lostpassword.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-welcome', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:58', '2023-02-04 09:16:58', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=7', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(8, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '{{poster.name}} replied to one of your updates:\n\n<blockquote>&quot;{{usermessage}}&quot;</blockquote>\n\n<a href=\"{{{thread.url}}}\">Go to the discussion</a> to reply or catch up on the conversation.', '[{{{site.name}}}] {{poster.name}} replied to one of your updates', '{{poster.name}} replied to one of your updates:\n\n\"{{usermessage}}\"\n\nGo to the discussion to reply or catch up on the conversation: {{{thread.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-poster-name-replied-to-one-of-your-updates', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=8', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(9, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '{{poster.name}} replied to one of your comments:\n\n<blockquote>&quot;{{usermessage}}&quot;</blockquote>\n\n<a href=\"{{{thread.url}}}\">Go to the discussion</a> to reply or catch up on the conversation.', '[{{{site.name}}}] {{poster.name}} replied to one of your comments', '{{poster.name}} replied to one of your comments:\n\n\"{{usermessage}}\"\n\nGo to the discussion to reply or catch up on the conversation: {{{thread.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-poster-name-replied-to-one-of-your-comments', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=9', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(10, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '{{poster.name}} mentioned you in a status update:\n\n<blockquote>&quot;{{usermessage}}&quot;</blockquote>\n\n<a href=\"{{{mentioned.url}}}\">Go to the discussion</a> to reply or catch up on the conversation.', '[{{{site.name}}}] {{poster.name}} mentioned you in a status update', '{{poster.name}} mentioned you in a status update:\n\n\"{{usermessage}}\"\n\nGo to the discussion to reply or catch up on the conversation: {{{mentioned.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-poster-name-mentioned-you-in-a-status-update', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=10', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(11, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '{{poster.name}} mentioned you in the group \"{{group.name}}\":\n\n<blockquote>&quot;{{usermessage}}&quot;</blockquote>\n\n<a href=\"{{{mentioned.url}}}\">Go to the discussion</a> to reply or catch up on the conversation.', '[{{{site.name}}}] {{poster.name}} mentioned you in an update', '{{poster.name}} mentioned you in the group \"{{group.name}}\":\n\n\"{{usermessage}}\"\n\nGo to the discussion to reply or catch up on the conversation: {{{mentioned.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-poster-name-mentioned-you-in-an-update', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=11', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(12, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', 'Thanks for registering!\n\nTo complete the activation of your account, go to the following link and click on the <strong>Activate</strong> button:\n<a href=\"{{{activate.url}}}\">{{{activate.url}}}</a>\n\nIf the \'Activation Key\' field is empty, copy and paste the following into the field - {{key}}', '[{{{site.name}}}] Activate your account', 'Thanks for registering!\n\nTo complete the activation of your account, go to the following link and click on the \'Activate\' button: {{{activate.url}}}\n\nIf the \'Activation Key\' field is empty, copy and paste the following into the field - {{key}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-activate-your-account', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=12', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(13, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '<a href=\"{{{initiator.url}}}\">{{initiator.name}}</a> wants to add you as a friend.\n\nTo accept this request and manage all of your pending requests, visit: <a href=\"{{{friend-requests.url}}}\">{{{friend-requests.url}}}</a>', '[{{{site.name}}}] New friendship request from {{initiator.name}}', '{{initiator.name}} wants to add you as a friend.\n\nTo accept this request and manage all of your pending requests, visit: {{{friend-requests.url}}}\n\nTo view {{initiator.name}}\'s profile, visit: {{{initiator.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-new-friendship-request-from-initiator-name', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=13', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(14, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '<a href=\"{{{friendship.url}}}\">{{friend.name}}</a> accepted your friend request.', '[{{{site.name}}}] {{friend.name}} accepted your friendship request', '{{friend.name}} accepted your friend request.\n\nTo learn more about them, visit their profile: {{{friendship.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-friend-name-accepted-your-friendship-request', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=14', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(15, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', 'Group details for the group &quot;<a href=\"{{{group.url}}}\">{{group.name}}</a>&quot; were updated:\n<blockquote>{{changed_text}}</blockquote>', '[{{{site.name}}}] Group details updated', 'Group details for the group \"{{group.name}}\" were updated:\n\n{{changed_text}}\n\nTo view the group, visit: {{{group.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-group-details-updated', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=15', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(16, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '<a href=\"{{{inviter.url}}}\">{{inviter.name}}</a> has invited you to join the group: &quot;{{group.name}}&quot;.\n\n{{invite.message}}\n\n<a href=\"{{{invites.url}}}\">Go here to accept your invitation</a> or <a href=\"{{{group.url}}}\">visit the group</a> to learn more.', '[{{{site.name}}}] You have an invitation to the group: \"{{group.name}}\"', '{{inviter.name}} has invited you to join the group: \"{{group.name}}\".\n\n{{invite.message}}\n\nTo accept your invitation, visit: {{{invites.url}}}\n\nTo learn more about the group, visit: {{{group.url}}}.\nTo view {{inviter.name}}\'s profile, visit: {{{inviter.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-you-have-an-invitation-to-the-group-group-name', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=16', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(17, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', 'You have been promoted to <b>{{promoted_to}}</b> in the group &quot;<a href=\"{{{group.url}}}\">{{group.name}}</a>&quot;.', '[{{{site.name}}}] You have been promoted in the group: \"{{group.name}}\"', 'You have been promoted to {{promoted_to}} in the group: \"{{group.name}}\".\n\nTo visit the group, go to: {{{group.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-you-have-been-promoted-in-the-group-group-name', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=17', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(18, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '<a href=\"{{{profile.url}}}\">{{requesting-user.name}}</a> wants to join the group &quot;{{group.name}}&quot;.\n {{request.message}}\n As you are an administrator of this group, you must either accept or reject the membership request.\n\n<a href=\"{{{group-requests.url}}}\">Go here to manage this</a> and all other pending requests.', '[{{{site.name}}}] Membership request for group: {{group.name}}', '{{requesting-user.name}} wants to join the group \"{{group.name}}\". As you are the administrator of this group, you must either accept or reject the membership request.\n\nTo manage this and all other pending requests, visit: {{{group-requests.url}}}\n\nTo view {{requesting-user.name}}\'s profile, visit: {{{profile.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-membership-request-for-group-group-name', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=18', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(19, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '{{sender.name}} sent you a new message: &quot;{{usersubject}}&quot;\n\n<blockquote>&quot;{{usermessage}}&quot;</blockquote>\n\n<a href=\"{{{message.url}}}\">Go to the discussion</a> to reply or catch up on the conversation.', '[{{{site.name}}}] New message from {{sender.name}}', '{{sender.name}} sent you a new message: \"{{usersubject}}\"\n\n\"{{usermessage}}\"\n\nGo to the discussion to reply or catch up on the conversation: {{{message.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-new-message-from-sender-name', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=19', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(20, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', 'You recently changed the email address associated with your account on {{site.name}} to {{user.email}}. If this is correct, <a href=\"{{{verify.url}}}\">go here to confirm the change</a>.\n\nOtherwise, you can safely ignore and delete this email if you have changed your mind, or if you think you have received this email in error.', '[{{{site.name}}}] Verify your new email address', 'You recently changed the email address associated with your account on {{site.name}} to {{user.email}}. If this is correct, go to the following link to confirm the change: {{{verify.url}}}\n\nOtherwise, you can safely ignore and delete this email if you have changed your mind, or if you think you have received this email in error.', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-verify-your-new-email-address', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=20', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(21, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', 'Your membership request for the group &quot;<a href=\"{{{group.url}}}\">{{group.name}}</a>&quot; has been accepted.', '[{{{site.name}}}] Membership request for group \"{{group.name}}\" accepted', 'Your membership request for the group \"{{group.name}}\" has been accepted.\n\nTo view the group, visit: {{{group.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-membership-request-for-group-group-name-accepted', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=21', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(22, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', 'Your membership request for the group &quot;<a href=\"{{{group.url}}}\">{{group.name}}</a>&quot; has been rejected.', '[{{{site.name}}}] Membership request for group \"{{group.name}}\" rejected', 'Your membership request for the group \"{{group.name}}\" has been rejected.\n\nTo request membership again, visit: {{{group.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-membership-request-for-group-group-name-rejected', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=22', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(23, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', 'An administrator accepted an invitation to join &quot;<a href=\"{{{group.url}}}\">{{group.name}}</a>&quot; on your behalf.\n\nIf you disagree with this, you can leave the group at anytime visiting your <a href=\"{{{leave-group.url}}}\">groups memberships page</a>.', '[{{{site.name}}}] Membership request for group \"{{group.name}}\" accepted', 'An administrator accepted an invitation to join \"{{group.name}}\" on your behalf.\n\nIf you disagree with this, you can leave the group at anytime visiting your groups memberships page: {{{leave-group.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-membership-request-for-group-group-name-accepted-2', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=23', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(24, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', 'An administrator rejected an invitation to join &quot;<a href=\"{{{group.url}}}\">{{group.name}}</a>&quot; on your behalf.\n\nIf you disagree with this, please contact the site administrator.', '[{{{site.name}}}] Membership request for group \"{{group.name}}\" rejected', 'An administrator rejected an invitation to join \"{{group.name}}\" on your behalf.\n\nIf you disagree with this, please contact the site administrator.', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-membership-request-for-group-group-name-rejected-2', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=24', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(25, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '<a href=\"{{{inviter.url}}}\">{{inviter.name}}</a> has invited you to join the site: &quot;{{site.name}}&quot;.\n\n{{usermessage}}\n\n<a href=\"{{{invite.accept_url}}}\">Accept your invitation</a> or <a href=\"{{{site.url}}}\">visit the site</a> to learn more.', '{{inviter.name}} has invited you to join {{site.name}}', '{{inviter.name}} has invited you to join the site \"{{site.name}}\".\n\n{{usermessage}}\n\nTo accept your invitation, visit: {{{invite.accept_url}}}\n\nTo learn more about the site, visit: {{{site.url}}}.\nTo view {{inviter.name}}\'s profile, visit: {{{inviter.url}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'inviter-name-has-invited-you-to-join-site-name', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=25', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(26, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '{{requesting-user.user_login}} would like to join the site: &quot;{{site.name}}&quot;.\n\n<a href=\"{{{manage.url}}}\">Manage the request</a>.', '{{requesting-user.user_login}} would like to join {{site.name}}', '{{requesting-user.user_login}} would like to join the site \"{{site.name}}\".\n\nTo manage the request, visit: {{{manage.url}}}.', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'requesting-user-user_login-would-like-to-join-site-name', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=26', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(27, 1, '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', 'Sorry, your request to join the site &quot;{{site.name}}&quot; has been declined.', 'Your request to join {{site.name}} has been declined', 'Sorry, your request to join the site \"{{site.name}}\" has been declined.', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'your-request-to-join-site-name-has-been-declined', '', '', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '2023-02-04 09:16:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=27', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(30, 1, '2014-02-02 12:15:43', '2014-02-02 12:15:43', '<h2>Welcome.</h2>\r\n<h2>Please contact us through any of the following channels:</h2>\r\n<strong>Phone Call:  +2348027571273</strong>\r\n\r\n<strong>Whatsapp:  +2348027571273</strong>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">.....<strong>..................................................................</strong></p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Fill out the following form</h2>\r\n[wpforms id=\"13039\"]', 'Contact us', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'contact', '', '', '2023-02-17 16:55:32', '2023-02-17 16:55:32', '', 0, 'http://seventhqueen.com/themes/kleo/?page_id=30', 0, 'page', '', 0),
(48, 1, '2012-11-14 12:41:10', '2012-11-14 12:41:10', 'Continually productivate wireless scenarios through installed base models.', 'Welcome to the community!', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'slide-1', '', '', '2012-11-14 12:41:10', '2012-11-14 12:41:10', '', 0, 'https://buddy.ghostpool.com/?post_type=slide&amp;p=48', 0, 'slide', '', 0),
(49, 1, '2012-11-14 12:42:34', '2012-11-14 12:42:34', '', 'Credibly extend long-term high', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'slide-2', '', '', '2012-11-14 12:42:34', '2012-11-14 12:42:34', '', 0, 'https://buddy.ghostpool.com/?post_type=slide&amp;p=49', 2, 'slide', '', 0),
(71, 1, '2012-11-20 10:40:49', '2012-11-20 10:40:49', '', 'Features', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'features', '', '', '2012-11-20 10:40:49', '2012-11-20 10:40:49', '', 0, 'https://buddy.ghostpool.com/?page_id=71', 0, 'page', '', 0),
(73, 1, '2012-11-20 10:42:08', '2012-11-20 10:42:08', '<h4 class=\"text-center\">You can create galleries and portfolios using the powerful [[posts]] shortcode that comes with buddy. Below are a few examples of what you can do with the shortcode, but it is capable of doing much more. For all the shortcode options click <a href=\"features/shortcodes/#sc-posts\">here</a>.</h4>\n[divider]\n<h2>Gallery Example 1</h2>\n[posts name=\"gal1\" cols=\"5\" per_page=\"5\" excerpt_length=\"50\" meta=\"false\" title_size=\"12\" image_wrap=\"false\"]\n\n<code>[[posts name=\"gal1\" cols=\"5\" per_page=\"5\" excerpt_length=\"50\" meta=\"false\" title_size=\"12\" image_wrap=\"false\"]]</code>\n\n[divider]\n<h2>Gallery Example 2</h2>\n[posts name=\"gal2\" per_page=\"3\" excerpt_length=\"600\" image_width=\"450\" image_height=\"200\"]\n\n[clear]\n\n<code>[[posts name=\"gal2\" per_page=\"3\" excerpt_length=\"600\" image_width=\"450\" image_height=\"200\"]]</code>\n\n[divider]\n\n<h2>Gallery Example 3</h2>\n[posts name=\"gal3\" cols=\"3\" per_page=\"6\" excerpt_length=\"200\" read_more=\"false\" image_width=\"200\" image_height=\"200\" meta=\"false\" pagination=\"false\" image_wrap=\"false\"]\n\n<code>[[posts name=\"gal3\" cols=\"3\" per_page=\"6\" excerpt_length=\"200\" read_more=\"false\" image_width=\"200\" image_height=\"200\" meta=\"false\" pagination=\"false\" image_wrap=\"false\"]]</code>\n\n[divider]\n\n<h2>Gallery Example 4</h2>\n[posts name=\"gal4\" cols=\"3\" per_page=\"6\" excerpt_length=\"60\" meta=\"false\" title_size=\"12\" title_font=\"Helvetica, Arial\" image_width=\"50\" image_height=\"50\" image_wrap=\"true\" spacing=\"spacing-small\" pagination=\"false\"]\n\n<code>[[posts name=\"gal1\" cols=\"3\" per_page=\"6\" excerpt_length=\"60\" meta=\"false\" title_size=\"12\" title_font=\"Helvetica, Arial\" image_width=\"50\" image_height=\"50\" image_wrap=\"true\" spacing=\"spacing-small\" pagination=\"false\"]]</code>', 'Galleries/Portfolios', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'galleriesportfolios', '', '', '2012-11-20 10:42:08', '2012-11-20 10:42:08', '', 71, 'https://buddy.ghostpool.com/?page_id=73', 0, 'page', '', 0);
INSERT INTO `teac_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(81, 1, '2012-11-20 10:50:19', '2012-11-20 10:50:19', '[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-accordions\"]Accordion Panels[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-activity-streams\"]Activity Streams[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-blockquotes\"]Blockquotes[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-buttons\"]Buttons[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-columns\"]Columns[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-dividers\"]Dividers[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-dropcaps\"]Dropcaps[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-images\"]Images[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-lists\"]Lists[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-logged-in\"]Logged In/Out[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-forms\"]Login Form[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-notifications\"]Notifications[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-posts\"]Posts[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-forms\"]Register Form[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-sidebars\"]Sidebars[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-sliders\"]Sliders[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-tabs-ex\"]Tabs[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-text-boxes\"]Text Boxes[/button]\n[button size=\"small\" link=\"#sc-toggle-boxes\"]Toggle Boxes[/button]\n\n[divider]\n\n<h3 id=\"sc-blockquotes\">Blockquotes</h3>\n[bq_left]\"Phosfluorescently procrastinate impactful markets and principle-centered potentialities. Progressively negotiate turnkey mindshare via maintainable applications.[/bq_left]\n\nMonotonectally extend an expanded array of alignments whereas client-based channels. Synergistically extend optimal technologies whereas B2B communities. Enthusiastically seize enterprise-wide interfaces rather than viral total linkage. Seamlessly drive ubiquitous applications without tactical mindshare. Continually. Collaboratively foster client-centered architectures before fully researched e-tailers. Holisticly envisioneer turnkey supply chains vis-a-vis premium markets. Dynamically brand accurate communities before process-centric customer service. Credibly architect backend portals before cost effective e-tailers. Conveniently brand. Authoritatively matrix top-line e-tailers without team building expertise. Proactively target focused channels and tactical value. Assertively synergize tactical opportunities before compelling portals. Appropriately re-engineer magnetic channels rather than premier e-business. Enthusiastically whiteboard virtual solutions vis-a-vis just in time meta-services. Completely exploit premium testing procedures without state of the art strategic theme areas. Appropriately envisioneer 24/365 services via cross-media communities.\n\n[bq_right]\"Phosfluorescently procrastinate impactful markets and principle-centered potentialities. Progressively negotiate turnkey mindshare via maintainable applications.[/bq_right]\n\nSynergistically extend vertical methodologies and corporate manufactured products. Phosfluorescently synthesize bleeding-edge customer service through market-driven quality vectors. Energistically mesh. Proactively repurpose bricks-and-clicks content via backend technologies. Efficiently benchmark user friendly strategic theme areas after e-business services. Proactively communicate global niche markets for 24/7 sources. Dynamically morph business solutions via global intellectual capital. Completely mesh enabled core competencies whereas covalent portals. Quickly actualize prospective models whereas excellent intellectual capital. Credibly pursue ethical paradigms after leading-edge deliverables. Professionally productivate fully tested solutions vis-a-vis efficient portals. Assertively leverage other\'s standards compliant e-tailers through synergistic scenarios. Appropriately scale client-focused vortals via.\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<pre>[[bq_left]Phosfluorescently procrastinate impactful markets and principle-centered potentialities. Progressively negotiate turnkey mindshare via maintainable applications.[/bq_left]] \n\nCompletely mesh enabled core competencies whereas covalent portals. Quickly actualize prospective models whereas excellent intellectual capital.\n\n[[bq_right]Phosfluorescently procrastinate impactful markets and principle-centered potentialities. Progressively negotiate turnkey mindshare via maintainable applications.[/bq_right]]\n\nCompletely mesh enabled core competencies whereas covalent portals. Quickly actualize prospective models whereas excellent intellectual capital.</pre>\n[/toggle]\n\n[divider]\n<h3 id=\"sc-columns\">Columns</h3>\n[one]\n<h4>1</h4>\nNunc laoreet, lorem nec elementum condimentum, orci nunc molestie elit, nec hendrerit dui urna id felis. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Suspendisse vestibulum tincidunt bibendum. Nulla at quam augue, sit amet varius odio. Morbi sit amet elit eu est semper congue. In aliquet, tellus in commodo euismod, libero mauris interdum sapien, nec tincidunt ligula nunc vel urna. Morbi sit amet adipiscing massa. Nulla et lorem turpis, vitae sagittis eros. Donec a tortor sed dui consequat porta. Vivamus tincidunt ipsum id felis hendrerit eleifend sed sed quam. Integer faucibus sagittis orci tempor accumsan. Sed porttitor placerat neque, in vestibulum lorem bibendum in. Cras sed libero eget tellus iaculis pharetra ac ut lacus. Integer in sapien erat, vel sodales lectus.[/one]\n\n[clear]\n\n<code>[[one] Text [/one]]</code>\n\n[clear]\n\n[two]\n<h4>1/2</h4>\nNunc laoreet, lorem nec elementum condimentum, orci nunc molestie elit, nec hendrerit dui urna id felis. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Suspendisse vestibulum tincidunt bibendum. Nulla at quam augue, sit amet varius odio. Morbi sit amet elit eu est semper.[/two]\n\n[two_last]\n<h4>1/2</h4>\nNunc laoreet, lorem nec elementum condimentum, orci nunc molestie elit, nec hendrerit dui urna id felis. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Suspendisse vestibulum tincidunt bibendum. Nulla at quam augue, sit amet varius odio. Morbi sit amet elit eu est semper.[/two_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n<code>[[two] Text [/two]] [[two_last] Text [/two_last]]</code>\n\n[clear]\n\n[three type=\"separate\"]\n<h4>1/3</h4>\nNunc laoreet, lorem nec elementum condimentum, orci nunc molestie elit, nec hendrerit dui urna id felis. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Suspendisse vestibulum tincidunt bibendum. Nulla at quam augue, sit amet varius odio. Morbi sit amet elit eu est semper congue.[/three]\n\n[three type=\"separate\"]\n<h4>1/3</h4>\nNunc laoreet, lorem nec elementum condimentum, orci nunc molestie elit, nec hendrerit dui urna id felis. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Suspendisse vestibulum tincidunt bibendum. Nulla at quam augue, sit amet varius odio. Morbi sit amet elit eu est semper congue.[/three]\n\n[three_last type=\"separate\"]\n<h4>1/3</h4>\nNunc laoreet, lorem nec elementum condimentum, orci nunc molestie elit, nec hendrerit dui urna id felis. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Suspendisse vestibulum tincidunt bibendum. Nulla at quam augue, sit amet varius odio. Morbi sit amet elit eu est semper congue.[/three_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n<code>[[three type=\"separate\"] Text [/three]] [[three type=\"separate\"] Text [/three]] [[three_last type=\"separate\"] Text [/three_last]]</code>\n\n[clear]\n\n[four type=\"joint\"]\n<h4>1/4</h4>\nLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec lacus libero, bibendum a pellentesque tristique, ullamcorper at justo. Proin ut lectus sit amet quam eleifend lacinia nec sed nisi.[/four]\n\n[four_middle type=\"joint\"]\n<h4>1/4</h4>\nLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec lacus libero, bibendum a pellentesque tristique, ullamcorper at justo. Proin ut lectus sit amet quam eleifend lacinia nec sed nisi.[/four_middle]\n\n[four_middle type=\"joint\"]\n<h4>1/4</h4>\nLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec lacus libero, bibendum a pellentesque tristique, ullamcorper at justo. Proin ut lectus sit amet quam eleifend lacinia nec sed nisi.[/four_middle]\n\n[four_last type=\"joint\"]\n<h4>1/4</h4>\nLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec lacus libero, bibendum a pellentesque tristique, ullamcorper at justo. Proin ut lectus sit amet quam eleifend lacinia nec sed nisi.[/four_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n<code>[[four type=\"joint\"] Text [/four]] [[four_middle type=\"joint\"] Text [/four_middle]] [[four_middle type=\"joint\"] Text [/four_middle]] [[four_last type=\"joint\"] Text [/four_last]]</code>\n\n[clear]\n\n[five type=\"joint\"]\n<h4>1/5</h4>\nLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec lacus libero, bibendum a pellentesque tristique, ullamcorper at justo. Proin ut lectus sit amet quam eleifend lacinia nec sed nisi.[/five]\n\n[five_middle type=\"joint\"]\n<h4>1/5</h4>\nLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec lacus libero, bibendum a pellentesque tristique, ullamcorper at justo. Proin ut lectus sit amet quam eleifend lacinia nec sed nisi.[/five_middle]\n\n[five_middle type=\"joint\"]\n<h4>1/5</h4>\nLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec lacus libero, bibendum a pellentesque tristique, ullamcorper at justo. Proin ut lectus sit amet quam eleifend lacinia nec sed nisi.[/five_middle]\n\n[five_middle type=\"joint\"]\n<h4>1/5</h4>\nLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec lacus libero, bibendum a pellentesque tristique, ullamcorper at justo. Proin ut lectus sit amet quam eleifend lacinia nec sed nisi.[/five_middle]\n\n[five_last type=\"joint\"]\n<h4>1/5</h4>\nLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec lacus libero, bibendum a pellentesque tristique, ullamcorper at justo. Proin ut lectus sit amet quam eleifend lacinia nec sed nisi.[/five_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n<code>[[five type=\"joint\"] Text [/five]] [[five_middle type=\"joint\"] Text [/five_middle]] [[five_middle type=\"joint\"] Text [/five_middle]] [[five_middle type=\"joint\"] Text [/five_middle]] [[five_last type=\"joint\"] Text [/five_last]]</code>\n\n[clear]\n\n[twothirds]\n<h4>2/3</h4>\nNunc laoreet, lorem nec elementum condimentum, orci nunc molestie elit, nec hendrerit dui urna id felis. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Suspendisse vestibulum tincidunt bibendum. Nulla at quam augue, sit amet varius odio. Morbi sit amet elit eu est semper congue. In aliquet, tellus in commodo euismod, libero mauris interdum sapien, nec tincidunt ligula nunc vel urna. Morbi sit amet adipiscing massa. Nulla et lorem turpis, vitae sagittis eros. Donec a tortor sed dui consequat porta. Vivamus tincidunt ipsum id felis hendrerit eleifend sed sed quam. Integer faucibus sagittis orci tempor accumsan. Sed porttitor placerat neque, in vestibulum lorem bibendum in. Cras sed libero eget tellus iaculis pharetra ac ut lacus. Integer in sapien erat, vel sodales lectus. [/twothirds]\n\n[onethird_last]\n<h4>1/3</h4>\nNunc laoreet, lorem nec elementum condimentum, orci nunc molestie elit, nec hendrerit dui urna id felis. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Suspendisse vestibulum tincidunt bibendum. Nulla at quam augue, sit amet varius odio. Morbi sit amet elit eu est semper congue.[/onethird_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n<code>[[twothirds] Text [/twothirds]] [[onethird_last] Text [/onethird_last]]</code>\n\n[clear]\n\n[onefourth]\n<h4>1/4</h4>\nLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec lacus libero, bibendum a pellentesque tristique, ullamcorper at justo. Proin ut lectus sit amet quam eleifend lacinia nec sed nisi.[/onefourth]\n\n[threefourths_last]\n<h4>3/4</h4>\nLorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec lacus libero, bibendum a pellentesque tristique, ullamcorper at justo. Proin ut lectus sit amet quam eleifend lacinia nec sed nisi. Cras enim nunc, suscipit eu mollis nec, facilisis et ipsum. Fusce et elit at erat imperdiet tristique consequat a erat. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec lacus libero, bibendum a pellentesque tristique, ullamcorper at justo. Proin ut lectus sit amet quam eleifend lacinia nec sed nisi. Cras enim nunc, suscipit eu mollis nec, facilisis et ipsum. Fusce et elit at erat imperdiet tristique consequat a erat.[/threefourths_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n<code>[[onefourth] Text [/onefourth]] [[threefourths_last] Text [/threefourths_last]]</code>\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[two]Insert your text here[/two]] [[two_last]Insert your text here[/two_last]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>type</td>\n<td>blank, separate, joint</td>\n<td>blank</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The type of column</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>text_align</td>\n<td>text-left, text-right, text-center</td>\n<td>text-left</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The text alignment in columns</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>height</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The height of your columns in px, em or %</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>padding</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The column padding in px, em or % (top,right,bottom,left e.g 20,10,20,50)</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>margins</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The column margins in px, em or % (top,right,bottom,left e.g 20,10,20,50)</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>background</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The background colour and/or image of your column (e.g. background=\"#eee\" or background=\"#000 url(IMAGE URL)\")</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>border</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display a border around joint and separate columns</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n[divider]\n\n\n<h3 id=\"sc-sidebars\">Sidebars</h3>\n[sidebar name=\"cs-shortcode-sidebar\"]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[sidebar name=\"cs-shortcode-sidebar\"]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>name</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>default</td>\n<td>Yes</td>\n<td>The ID of your sidebar</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>width</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The width of your sidebar</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>align</td>\n<td>alignnone</td>\n<td>alignnone, alignleft, alignright, aligncenter</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The alignment of your sidebar</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>text</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The text displayed if no widgets have been added to the sidebar</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n\n[divider]\n<h3 id=\"sc-images\">Images</h3>\n[three type=\"separate\"]\n<h5>Left Aligned Image</h5>\n[image url=\"wp-content/uploads/photodune-3382849-mountain3-s1.jpg\" width=\"200\" align=\"alignleft\"][/three]\n\n[three type=\"separate\"]\n<h5>Center Aligned Image</h5>\n[image url=\"wp-content/uploads/photodune-3382849-mountain3-s1.jpg\" width=\"200\" align=\"aligncenter\"][/three]\n\n[three_last type=\"separate\"]\n<h5>Right Aligned Image</h5>\n[image url=\"wp-content/uploads/photodune-3382849-mountain3-s1.jpg\" width=\"200\" align=\"alignright\"][/three_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n[four type=\"separate\" height=\"236\"]\n<h5>Preloaded Image</h5>\n[image url=\"wp-content/uploads/photodune-3382849-mountain3-s1.jpg\" width=\"150\" preload=\"true\"][/four]\n\n[four type=\"separate\" height=\"236\"]\n<h5>Positioned Image</h5>\n[image url=\"wp-content/uploads/photodune-3382849-mountain3-s1.jpg\" width=\"150\" bottom=\"0\" right=\"0\" mtop=\"20\"][/four]\n\n[four type=\"separate\" height=\"236\"]\n<h5>Image With Border</h5>\n[image url=\"wp-content/uploads/photodune-3382849-mountain3-s1.jpg\" width=\"150\" border=\"true\"][/four]\n\n[four_last type=\"separate\" height=\"236\"]\n<h5>Lightbox Video</h5>\n[image url=\"wp-content/uploads/photodune-3382849-mountain3-s1.jpg\" lightbox=\"video\" link=\"https://vimeo.com/36006533\" width=\"150\"][/four_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[image url=\"wp-content/uploads/photodune-3382849-mountain3-s1.jpg\" width=\"200\" align=\"alignleft\"]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>url</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Yes</td>\n<td>The URL of your image</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>width</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The width of your image</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>crop</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to resize or crop the image to specified dimensions</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>height</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The height of your image</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>link</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The link to your image</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>target</td>\n<td>_self, _blank</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether your link opens in a new window</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>border</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display a border around your image</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>align</td>\n<td>alignleft, alignright, aligncenter</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The alignment of your image</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>margins</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The image margins in px, em or % (top,right,bottom,left e.g. 10,20,15,10)</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>top</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The top position of your image</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>bottom</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The bottom position of your image</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>left</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The left position of your image</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>right</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The right position of your image</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>alt</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The alternate image text</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>title</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The link title</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>lightbox</td>\n<td>none, image, video</td>\n<td>none</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose what the lightbox content is</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>preload</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>false</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether your image preloads</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n[divider]\n\n[two]\n<h3 id=\"sc-tabs-ex\">Tabs</h3>\n[tabs]\n[tab title=\"Tab 1\"]Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. In et leo ut lacus auctor facilisis a vitae diam. Proin viverra congue ultricies. Aliquam elit nunc, rutrum id ultrices et, rutrum a eros. Morbi id sapien ante, at eleifend quam. Quisque ac magna metus. Morbi dictum, enim sed molestie scelerisque, ligula felis ullamcorper ante, in molestie elit ante a enim. Phasellus blandit cursus est at pharetra.\nNullam id massa eu neque pulvinar faucibus. Fusce massa sapien, placerat nec pretium non, gravida ut urna. Duis semper ante sapien. Proin cursus placerat turpis quis tempor. Curabitur at est at nunc sodales vehicula. Curabitur ut porttitor metus. Fusce mi erat, dictum at blandit nec, vehicula sed enim. In suscipit dapibus ipsum nec lacinia. Nam pretium consequat tellus malesuada dapibus. Aliquam vitae justo turpis.[/tab]\n[tab title=\"Tab 2\"]In vel dui consectetur leo rhoncus sollicitudin. Praesent auctor dictum laoreet. Aliquam ultrices lacus id ligula suscipit aliquet vitae at diam. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Pellentesque euismod, elit sit amet vestibulum porta, ligula nulla sollicitudin magna, non vestibulum justo quam quis libero.[/tab]\n[tab title=\"Tab 3\"]Pellentesque sed dolor dolor, vel luctus odio. Pellentesque auctor suscipit diam nec suscipit. In consectetur ullamcorper purus, quis pretium ante tincidunt at. Nullam sollicitudin turpis erat, eu dignissim nisi. Mauris ut facilisis enim. Quisque purus augue, commodo vitae malesuada eu, mollis vitae leo. Duis at nisl ut nulla scelerisque semper at eu dui. Etiam viverra consequat blandit. In hac habitasse platea dictumst. Proin feugiat enim non libero commodo et tincidunt dui dictum. Sed tempor iaculis condimentum. Aliquam vel semper odio. Vivamus adipiscing arcu eu enim facilisis nec suscipit nisi vulputate. Cras at est mi, quis sollicitudin massa. Mauris posuere magna at arcu tincidunt eget ultrices sem lobortis. Integer ut lacus lorem, eu interdum augue. Aliquam consequat, risus id euismod cursus, diam lorem tincidunt metus, a varius turpis turpis ac tellus. Suspendisse pulvinar hendrerit leo a egestas. Etiam aliquam adipiscing orci, ut eleifend lorem tincidunt eu.[/tab]\n[/tabs]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[tabs]\n[tab title=\"Title 1\"]Insert your text here[/tab]\n[tab title=\"Title 2\"]Insert your text here[/tab]\n[tab title=\"Title 3\"]Insert your text here[/tab]\n[/tabs]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>title</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Yes</td>\n<td>The title of your tab</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n[/two]\n\n[two_last]\n<h3 id=\"sc-accordions\">Accordion Panels</h3>\n[accordion][panel title=\"Vestibulum ante ipsum\"]Credibly build standardized web services before mission-critical models. Enthusiastically transform resource-leveling interfaces for premier web-readiness. Intrinsicly maximize wireless leadership skills and quality interfaces. Authoritatively.[/panel][panel title=\"Quam suscipit\"]Credibly build standardized web services before mission-critical models. Enthusiastically transform resource-leveling interfaces for premier web-readiness. Intrinsicly maximize wireless leadership skills and quality interfaces. Authoritatively.[/panel][panel title=\"Donec ullamcorper ipsum\"]Credibly build standardized web services before mission-critical models. Enthusiastically transform resource-leveling interfaces for premier web-readiness. Intrinsicly maximize wireless leadership skills and quality interfaces. Authoritatively.[/panel][panel title=\"Nullam mattis urna eu\"]Credibly build standardized web services before mission-critical models. Enthusiastically transform resource-leveling interfaces for premier web-readiness. Intrinsicly maximize wireless leadership skills and quality interfaces. Authoritatively.[/panel][/accordion]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[accordion]\n[panel title=\"Title 1\"]Insert your text here[/panel]\n[panel title=\"Title 2\"]Insert your text here[/panel]\n[panel title=\"Title 3\"]Insert your text here[/panel]\n[/accordion]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>title</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Yes</td>\n<td>The title of your accordion panel</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n[/two_last]\n\n[divider]\n<h3 id=\"sc-buttons\">Buttons</h3>\n[three]\n[button link=\"#\" target=\"_blank\" color=\"yellow\"]Small Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"medium\" color=\"yellow\"]Medium Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"large\" color=\"yellow\"]Large Button[/button]\n[/three]\n\n[three]\n[button link=\"#\" color=\"darkgrey\"]Small Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"medium\" color=\"darkgrey\"]Medium Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"large\" color=\"darkgrey\"]Large Button[/button]\n[/three]\n\n[three_last]\n[button link=\"#\" color=\"brown\"]Small Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"medium\" color=\"brown\"]Medium Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"large\" color=\"brown\"]Large Button[/button]\n[/three_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n[three]\n[button link=\"#\" color=\"blue\"]Small Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"medium\" color=\"blue\"]Medium Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"large\" color=\"blue\"]Large Button[/button]\n[/three]\n\n[three]\n[button link=\"#\" color=\"mediumblue\"]Small Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"medium\" color=\"mediumblue\"]Medium Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"large\" color=\"mediumblue\"]Large Button[/button]\n[/three]\n\n[three_last]\n[button link=\"#\" color=\"darkblue\"]Small Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"medium\" color=\"darkblue\"]Medium Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"large\" color=\"darkblue\"]Large Button[/button]\n[/three_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n[three]\n[button link=\"#\" color=\"limegreen\"]Small Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"medium\" color=\"limegreen\"]Medium Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"large\" color=\"limegreen\"]Large Button[/button]\n[/three]\n\n[three]\n[button link=\"#\" color=\"\" color=\"teal\"]Small Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"medium\" color=\"teal\"]Medium Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"large\" color=\"teal\"]Large Button[/button]\n[/three]\n\n[three_last]\n[button link=\"#\" color=\"darkgreen\"]Small Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"medium\" color=\"darkgreen\"]Medium Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"large\" color=\"darkgreen\"]Large Button[/button]\n[/three_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n[three]\n[button link=\"#\" color=\"red\"]Small Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"medium\" color=\"red\"]Medium Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"large\" color=\"red\"]Large Button[/button]\n[/three]\n\n[three]\n[button link=\"#\" color=\"darkred\"]Small Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"medium\" color=\"darkred\"]Medium Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"large\" color=\"darkred\"]Large Button[/button]\n[/three]\n\n[three_last]\n[button link=\"#\" color=\"orange\"]Small Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"medium\" color=\"orange\"]Medium Button[/button]\n[button link=\"#\" size=\"large\" color=\"orange\"]Large Button[/button]\n[/three_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[button link=\"#\" color=\"darkblue\"]Click Here[/button]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>link</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Yes</td>\n<td>The link your button goes to</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>color</td>\n<td>yellow, darkgrey, blue, darkblue, mediumblue, red, limegreen, teal, brown, orange</td>\n<td>mediumblue</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The colour of your button</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>size</td>\n<td>small, medium, large</td>\n<td>medium</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The size of your button</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>target</td>\n<td>_self, _blank</td>\n<td>_self</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether the link opens in a new window</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n[divider]\n<h3 id=\"sc-lists\">Lists</h3>\n[three][list] [li type=\"fa-caret-right\"]List 1[/li] [li type=\"fa-caret-right\"]List 2[/li] [li type=\"fa-caret-right\"]List 3[/li] [/list][/three]\n\n[three][list] [li type=\"fa-check\"]List 1[/li] [li type=\"fa-check\"]List 2[/li] [li type=\"fa-check\"]List 3[/li] [/list][/three]\n\n[three_last][list] [li type=\"fa-thumbs-up\"]List 1[/li] [li type=\"fa-thumbs-up\"]List 2[/li] [li type=\"fa-thumbs-up\"]List 3[/li] [/list][/three_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[list] [li type=\"fa-caret-right\"]List 1[/li] [li type=\"fa-caret-right\"]List 2[/li] [li type=\"fa-caret-right\"]List 3[/li] [/list]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>type</td>\n<td>Use any of the icon names <a href=\"https://fortawesome.github.io/Font-Awesome/cheatsheet\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">here</a></td>\n<td>fa-caret-right</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The bullet style for list items</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n[divider]\n<h3 id=\"sc-notifications\">Notifications</h3>\n[notification type=\"default\"]Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Nullam sit amet nunc nisl. Morbi eu auctor libero. In facilisis faucibus sapien, ac adipiscing magna tristique in. Ut quis lacus vitae sem sodales facilisis. Morbi vel ipsum eget nulla vestibulum pulvinar. Fusce quis orci massa, sit amet hendrerit nibh. ivamus luctus, quam quis dapibus molestie, turpis dui semper lorem, id ultrices turpis enim et sapien. Suspendisse potenti.[/notification]\n\n[two] [notification type=\"help\"]Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Nullam sit amet nunc nisl. Morbi eu auctor libero. In facilisis faucibus sapien, ac adipiscing magna tristique in.[/notification]\n\n[notification type=\"success\"]Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Nullam sit amet nunc nisl. Morbi eu auctor libero. In facilisis faucibus sapien, ac adipiscing magna tristique in.[/notification] [/two]\n\n[two_last] [notification type=\"error\"]Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Nullam sit amet nunc nisl. Morbi eu auctor libero. In facilisis faucibus sapien, ac adipiscing magna tristique in.[/notification]\n\n[notification type=\"warning\"]Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Nullam sit amet nunc nisl. Morbi eu auctor libero. In facilisis faucibus sapien, ac adipiscing magna tristique in.[/notification] [/two_last]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[notification type=\"default\"]Insert text here[/notification]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>type</td>\n<td>default, warning, error, help, success</td>\n<td>default</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The type of notification</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n[divider]\n\n[two]\n<h3 id=\"sc-dividers\">Dividers</h3>\n[divider]\n<code>[[divider]]</code>\n\n[top_divider]\n<code>[[top_divider]]</code>\n\n[small_divider]\n<code>[[small_divider]]</code>\n\n[clear]\nThere\'s nothing to see here! This divider breaks up content without any visible divider.\n<code>[[clear]]</code>\n[/two]\n\n[two_last]\n<h3 id=\"sc-dropcaps\">Dropcaps</h3>\n[dropcap_1]D[/dropcap_1]istinctively customize next-generation relationships via focused e-services. Dramatically. Progressively utilize ubiquitous infrastructures and team building partnerships.[clear]\n[dropcap_2]D[/dropcap_2]istinctively customize next-generation relationships via focused e-services. Dramatically. Progressively utilize ubiquitous infrastructures and team building partnerships.[clear]\n[dropcap_3]D[/dropcap_3]istinctively customize next-generation relationships via focused e-services. Dramatically. Progressively utilize ubiquitous infrastructures and team building partnerships.[clear]\n[dropcap_4]D[/dropcap_4]istinctively customize next-generation relationships via focused e-services. Dramatically. Progressively utilize ubiquitous infrastructures and team building partnerships.[clear]\n[dropcap_5]D[/dropcap_5]istinctively customize next-generation relationships via focused e-services. Dramatically. Progressively utilize ubiquitous infrastructures and team building partnerships.\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[dropcap_1]I[/dropcap_1]]nsert your text here</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>color</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The dropcap text colour</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n[/two_last]\n\n[divider]\n\n[two]\n<h3 id=\"sc-forms\">Login Form</h3>\n[login]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[login]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>username</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Username</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Username text label</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>password</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Password</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Password text label</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>redirect</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The page URL to redirect to after login</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n[/two]\n\n[two_last]\n<h3 id=\"sc-forms\">Register Form</h3>\n[register]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[register]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>username</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Username</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Username text label</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>email</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Email</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Email text label</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>redirect</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The page URL to redirect to after registering</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n[/two_last]\n\n[divider]\n<h3 id=\"sc-logged-in\">Logged In/Out</h3>\n[logged_in]Can only see this content when logged in.[/logged_in]\n\n<code>[[logged_in]Can only see this content when logged in.[/logged_in]]</code>\n\n[clear]\n\n[logged_out]Can only see this content when logged out.[/logged_out]\n\n<code>[[logged_out]Can only see this content when logged out.[/logged_out]]</code>\n\n[divider]\n<h3 id=\"sc-posts\">Posts</h3>\n[two][posts image_width=\"100\" image_height=\"100\" image_wrap=\"true\" per_page=\"3\" pagination=\"false\" excerpt_length=\"100\" meta_author=\"false\" meta_date=\"false\" meta_cats=\"false\" meta_comments=\"false\"][/two]\n[two_last][posts image_width=\"400\" image_height=\"150\" per_page=\"1\" excerpt_length=\"200\" pagination=\"false\" meta_comments=\"false\" image_wrap=\"false\"][/two_last]\n\n[clear][clear]\n\n[posts image_width=\"250\" image_height=\"150\" cols=\"3\" per_page=\"3\" excerpt_length=\"100\" pagination=\"false\" meta=\"false\" link=\"image\" title_size=\"18\" image_wrap=\"false\"]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[posts content=\"post\" cats=\"\" ids=\"\" images=\"true\" image_width=\"200\" image_height=\"150\" image_wrap=\"true\" hard_crop=\"false\" cols=\"1\" per_page=\"5\" link=\"both\" orderby=\"date\" order=\"desc\" offset=\"\" content_display=\"excerpt\" excerpt_length=\"700\" title=\"true\" title_size=\"\" title_font=\"\" meta=\"true\" read_more=\"true\" pagination=\"true\" preload=\"false\" spacing=\"spacing-normal\" header=\"\"]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>content</td>\n<td>post, page</td>\n<td>post</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The post types to display</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>cats</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The post category IDs to display</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>ids</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The post/page IDs to display</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>images</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display the featured images</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>image_width</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>200</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The featured image width</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>image_height</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>150</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The featured image height</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>image_wrap</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to wrap text around your featured images</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>hard_crop</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>false</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to hard crop the images</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>cols</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>1</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The number of post columns</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>per_page</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>5</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The number of posts per page</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>link</td>\n<td>both, title, image, none</td>\n<td>both</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose which part of your posts link to your URL</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>orderby</td>\n<td>date, title, rand</td>\n<td>date</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose the order criteria for your posts</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>order</td>\n<td>desc, asc</td>\n<td>desc</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose how to order your posts</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>offset</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose how any posts to offset by</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>content_display</td>\n<td>excerpt, full</td>\n<td>excerpt</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display the full content or an excerpt</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>excerpt_length</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>700</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The number of text characters in your excerpts</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>title</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display your post titles</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>title_size</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>26</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The size of the title font (px)</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>title_font</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The font family of the title font (e.g. title_font=\"Helvetica\")</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>meta</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display the post meta data</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>meta_author</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display the post author</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>meta_date</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display the post date</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>meta_cats</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display the post categories</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>meta_comments</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display the post comment number</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>meta_tags</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display the post tags</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>read_more</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display the Read More link</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>pagination</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display page numbers</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>preload</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>false</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to preload your posts</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>spacing</td>\n<td>spacing-normal, spacing-small</td>\n<td>spacing-normal</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether the spacing for posts is normal or small</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>header</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The text for your post header</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n[divider]\n\n<h3 id=\"sc-sliders\">Sliders</h3>\n[slider width=\"1003\" height=\"480\" align=\"alignleft\"]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[slider content=\"slide\" cats=\"\" ids=\"\" width=\"1003\" height=\"480\" hard_crop=\"false\" slides=\"-1\" timeout=\"6\" orderby=\"menu_order\" order=\"asc\" buttons=\"true\" shadow=\"true\" content_display=\"excerpt\" excerpt_length=\"0\" title=\"true\" title_length=\"40\" margins=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" preload=\"false\"]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>content</td>\n<td>slide, post</td>\n<td>slide</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The post types to display in your slider</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>cats</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The IDs of the slider and/or post categories to display</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>ids</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The post/page IDs to display</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>width</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>1003</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The width of your slider</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>height</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>480</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The height of your slider</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>hard_crop</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>false</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to hard crop the images</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>slides</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>-1</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The number of slides in your slider (set to -1 to display all slides)</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>timeout</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>6</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The number of seconds between each slide</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>orderby</td>\n<td>menu_order, date, title, rand</td>\n<td>menu_order</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose what criteria to sort your slides by</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>order</td>\n<td>asc, desc</td>\n<td>asc</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose how to order your slides</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>buttons</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display the navigation buttons</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>shadow</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display a shadow around your slider</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>content_display</td>\n<td>excerpt, full</td>\n<td>excerpt</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display the full content or an excerpt</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>excerpt_length</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>0</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The number of text characters in your excerpts</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>title</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display your post titles</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>title_length</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>40</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The number of text characters in your titles</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>margins</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The margins around your slider in px, em or % (top,right,bottom,left e.g. 10,20,15,10)</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>align</td>\n<td>alignnone</td>\n<td>alignnone, alignleft, alignright, aligncenter</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The alignment of your slider</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>preload</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>false</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether your slider preloads</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n[divider]\n<h3 id=\"sc-text-boxes\">Text Boxes</h3>\n[text size=\"15\" color=\"#999\" text_align=\"text-center\"]Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Nulla ultricies magna nec tortor consequat vel auctor augue interdum. Nunc volutpat risus a libero condimentum sit amet placerat nisi feugiat. Morbi euismod suscipit enim, vitae hendrerit elit cursus et. Aenean eu enim a mauris convallis venenatis vel vitae magna. Nam rhoncus, enim dignissim dapibus euismod, magna nisi semper diam, vitae auctor diam lectus nec enim. Nam in eros erat. Nam aliquet iaculis lorem, id dignissim neque condimentum ut.[/text]\n\n[clear]\n\n[text size=\"28\" line_height=\"30px\" font=\"Georgia, Times New Roman\" name=\"Bob Jones\" company=\"MyCompany\"]Morbi euismod suscipit enim, vitae hendrerit elit cursus et. Aenean eu enim a mauris convallis venenatis vel vitae magna.[/text]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[text size=\"38\" line_height=\"30px\" font=\"Georgia, Times New Roman\" name=\"Bob Jones\" company=\"MyCompany\"]Morbi euismod suscipit enim, vitae hendrerit elit cursus et. Aenean eu enim a mauris convallis venenatis vel vitae magna.[/text]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>size</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The font size of your text</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>width</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The width of your text box in px, em or %</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>height</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The height of your text box in px, em or %</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>line_height</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The line height of your text in px, em or %</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>color</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The colour of your text</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>font</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The font family of your text</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>margins</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The margins of your text box in px, em or % (top,right,bottom,left e.g. 10,20,15,30)</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>text_align</td>\n<td>text-left, text-center, text-right</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The alignment of your text</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>align</td>\n<td>alignone, alignleft, aligncenter, alignright</td>\n<td>alignnone</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The alignment of your text text box</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>other</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Add any other styling you want to apply to your text box (e.g. other=\"font-weight: bold;\")</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>name</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Enter a name for quotes</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>company</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Enter a company for quotes</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n[divider]\n<h3 id=\"sc-toggle-boxes\">Toggle Boxes</h3>\n[toggle title=\"Efficiently evisculate ubiquitous data for client-centered core competencies\"]Collaboratively grow cost effective benefits before principle-centered catalysts for change. Credibly morph next-generation alignments and progressive schemas. Competently simplify efficient synergy whereas stand-alone web services. Intrinsicly facilitate emerging action items via one-to-one outsourcing. Objectively coordinate diverse alignments and best-of-breed total linkage.[/toggle]\n\n[toggle title=\"Uniquely foster end-to-end scenarios through\"]Phosfluorescently incentivize vertical functionalities without market positioning scenarios. Progressively innovate unique methodologies with high-quality alignments. Objectively. Assertively morph competitive architectures whereas real-time markets. Progressively plagiarize high-payoff networks with plug-and-play products. Efficiently fashion bleeding-edge experiences via.[/toggle]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>title</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Yes</td>\n<td>The title of your toggle box</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]\n\n[divider]\n<h3 id=\"sc-activity-streams\">Activity Streams</h3>\n[activity header=\"Latest Activity\" post_form=\"enabled\" scope=\"\" per_page=\"5\" comments=\"threaded\" allow_comments=\"false\" order=\"desc\" pagination=\"true\" max=\"\" user_id=\"\"]\n\n[clear]\n\n[toggle title=\"Options &amp; Code\"]\n<h4>Example</h4>\n<code>[[activity header=\"Latest Activity\" per_page=\"5\" comments=\"threaded\" allow_comments=\"false\" order=\"desc\" pagination=\"true\"]]</code>\n<h4>Options</h4>\n<table class=\"gp-table\" width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Option</th>\n<th>Values</th>\n<th>Default Value</th>\n<th>Required</th>\n<th>Description</th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>header</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Latest Activity</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The text for your post header</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>post_form</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>enabled</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display the post form</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>scope</td>\n<td>just-me, friends, groups, favorites, mentions</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Pre-defined filtering of the activity stream. Show only activity for the scope you pass (based on the logged in user or a user_id you pass)</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>per_page</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>5</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The number of posts per page</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>comments</td>\n<td>threaded, stream, 0</td>\n<td>threaded</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose how comments are displayed in the stream</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>allow_comments</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>false</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to allow commenting in the activity stream</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>order</td>\n<td>desc, asc</td>\n<td>desc</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose how to order your posts</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>pagination</td>\n<td>true, false</td>\n<td>true</td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Choose whether to display page numbers</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>max</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>The maximum number of activity items that can be returned</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>user_id</td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td>Limit activity items to a specific user ID</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n[/toggle]', 'Shortcodes', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'shortcodes', '', '', '2012-11-20 10:50:19', '2012-11-20 10:50:19', '', 71, 'https://buddy.ghostpool.com/?page_id=81', 0, 'page', '', 0);

INSERT INTO `teac_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(13066, 1, '2023-02-13 04:23:57', '2023-02-13 04:23:57', '<!-- wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-columns {\"id\":\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-columns-0d617423\",\"columns\":1,\"layout\":\"equal\",\"padding\":{\"top\":\"80px\",\"right\":\"20px\",\"bottom\":\"80px\",\"left\":\"20px\"},\"paddingTablet\":{\"top\":\"80px\",\"right\":\"20px\",\"bottom\":\"80px\",\"left\":\"20px\"},\"paddingMobile\":{\"top\":\"40px\",\"right\":\"20px\",\"bottom\":\"40px\",\"left\":\"20px\"},\"margin\":{\"top\":\"0px\",\"bottom\":\"0px\"},\"columnsWidth\":900,\"horizontalAlign\":\"center\",\"verticalAlign\":\"center\",\"backgroundColor\":\"#ffffff\",\"backgroundOverlayType\":\"image\",\"align\":\"full\"} -->\n<div id=\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-columns-0d617423\" class=\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-columns alignfull has-1-columns has-desktop-equal-layout has-tablet-equal-layout has-mobile-equal-layout has-vertical-center\"><div class=\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-columns-overlay\"></div><div class=\"innerblocks-wrap\"><!-- wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-column {\"id\":\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-column-09847c7b\",\"padding\":{\"top\":\"0px\",\"right\":\"0px\",\"bottom\":\"0px\",\"left\":\"0px\"},\"paddingMobile\":{\"top\":\"0px\",\"right\":\"0px\",\"bottom\":\"0px\",\"left\":\"0px\"},\"columnWidth\":\"100\"} -->\n<div id=\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-column-09847c7b\" class=\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-column\"><!-- wp:image {\"align\":\"center\",\"id\":135,\"sizeSlug\":\"large\",\"linkDestination\":\"none\",\"className\":\"ticss-3f08ab9a\",\"hasCustomCSS\":true,\"customCSS\":\".ticss-3f08ab9a {}\"} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-large ticss-3f08ab9a\"><img src=\"https://demosites.io/otter/wp-content/uploads/sites/664/2022/08/coming_soon_img.svg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-135\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-heading {\"id\":\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-heading-84bfa495\",\"tag\":\"h1\",\"align\":\"center\",\"alignTablet\":\"center\",\"alignMobile\":\"center\",\"headingColor\":\"#282525\",\"fontSize\":80,\"fontSizeTablet\":48,\"fontSizeMobile\":40,\"fontFamily\":\"Outfit\",\"fontVariant\":\"800\",\"fontStyle\":\"normal\",\"textTransform\":\"none\"} -->\n<h1 id=\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-heading-84bfa495\" class=\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-heading wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-heading-84bfa495\">Our Website is Coming soon.</h1>\n<!-- /wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:spacer {\"height\":\"40px\"} -->\n<div style=\"height:40px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"></div>\n<!-- /wp:spacer -->\n\n<!-- wp:themeisle-blocks/countdown {\"id\":\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-countdown-aead0e2a\",\"date\":\"2023-05-17T18:46:07\",\"backgroundColor\":\"#efece5\",\"valueColor\":\"#202020\",\"labelColor\":\"#9c9c9c\",\"gap\":16,\"width\":193,\"containerWidth\":\"100%\",\"height\":156,\"heightMobile\":125,\"borderRadiusBox\":{\"left\":\"5px\",\"right\":\"5px\",\"bottom\":\"5px\",\"top\":\"5px\"},\"borderStyle\":\"solid\",\"borderWidth\":0,\"valueFontSize\":64,\"valueFontSizeTablet\":\"40px\",\"valueFontSizeMobile\":\"32px\",\"labelFontSize\":\"16px\",\"labelFontSizeTablet\":\"13px\",\"labelFontSizeMobile\":\"14px\",\"hasSeparators\":false,\"valueFontWeight\":\"600\",\"labelFontWeight\":\"600\"} -->\n<div id=\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-countdown-aead0e2a\" data-date=\"2023-05-17T18:46:07\" class=\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-countdown\"><div class=\"otter-countdown__container\"><div class=\"otter-countdown__display\"><div name=\"day\" class=\"otter-countdown__display-area is-main-component\"><div 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Meanwhile, follow us on Social.</p>\n<!-- /wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:social-links {\"iconColor\":\"white\",\"iconColorValue\":\"#ffffff\",\"customIconBackgroundColor\":\"#63a18f\",\"iconBackgroundColorValue\":\"#63a18f\",\"size\":\"has-large-icon-size\",\"className\":\"is-style-default\",\"layout\":{\"type\":\"flex\",\"justifyContent\":\"center\"}} -->\n<ul class=\"wp-block-social-links has-large-icon-size has-icon-color has-icon-background-color is-style-default\"><!-- wp:social-link {\"url\":\"#\",\"service\":\"twitter\"} /-->\n\n<!-- wp:social-link {\"url\":\"#\",\"service\":\"facebook\"} /-->\n\n<!-- wp:social-link {\"url\":\"#\",\"service\":\"instagram\"} /--></ul>\n<!-- /wp:social-links --></div>\n<!-- /wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-column --></div></div>\n<!-- /wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-columns --><!-- wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-columns 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-->\n\n<!-- wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-heading {\"id\":\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-heading-4122f520\",\"tag\":\"p\",\"align\":\"left\",\"alignTablet\":\"center\",\"alignMobile\":\"center\",\"headingColor\":\"#282525\",\"fontSize\":22,\"fontSizeTablet\":22,\"fontSizeMobile\":20,\"fontFamily\":\"Outfit\",\"fontVariant\":\"normal\",\"fontStyle\":\"normal\"} -->\n<p id=\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-heading-4122f520\" class=\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-heading wp-block-themeisle-blocks-advanced-heading-4122f520\">Leave your email and we will send you a heads-up when our site launches.</p>\n<!-- /wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:themeisle-blocks/form {\"id\":\"wp-block-themeisle-blocks-form-f9b364b5\",\"optionName\":\"158_f9b364b5\",\"submitLabel\":\"Keep me 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Check out our <a href=\"#\">Privacy Policy</a> page to fully understand how we protect and manage your submitted data.</p>\n<!-- /wp:paragraph --><div class=\"wp-block-button\"><button class=\"wp-block-button__link\" type=\"submit\">Keep me updated</button></div></form></div>\n<!-- /wp:themeisle-blocks/form --></div>\n<!-- /wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-column --></div></div>\n<!-- /wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-columns --></div>\n<!-- /wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-column --></div></div>\n<!-- /wp:themeisle-blocks/advanced-columns -->', 'Maintenance Page', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'maintenance-page', '', '', '2023-02-13 04:23:57', '2023-02-13 04:23:57', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/maintenance-page/', 0, 'page', '', 0),
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(13137, 1, '2023-02-17 16:55:23', '2023-02-17 16:55:23', '<h2>Welcome.</h2>\n<h2>Please contact us through any of the following channels:</h2>\n<strong>Phone Call:  +2348027571273</strong>\n\n<strong>Whatsapp:  +2348027571273</strong>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">.......................................................................</p>\n\n<h2>Fill out the following form</h2>\n[wpforms id=\"13039\"]', 'Contact us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '30-autosave-v1', '', '', '2023-02-17 16:55:23', '2023-02-17 16:55:23', '', 30, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13137', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13138, 1, '2023-02-17 16:44:59', '2023-02-17 16:44:59', '<h2>Welcome.</h2>\r\n<h2>Please contact us through any of the following channels:</h2>\r\n<strong>Phone Call:  +2348027571273</strong>\r\n\r\n<strong>Whatsapp:  +2348027571273</strong>\r\n<h2>Fill out the following form</h2>\r\n[wpforms id=\"13039\"]', 'Contact us', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '30-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-17 16:44:59', '2023-02-17 16:44:59', '', 30, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13138', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(13143, 1, '2023-02-17 18:43:45', '2023-02-17 18:43:45', '1. Renewal of Life by Transmission. The most notable distinction between living and inanimate things is that the former maintain themselves by renewal. A stone when struck resists. If its resistance is greater than the force of the blow struck, it remains outwardly unchanged. Otherwise, it is shattered into smaller bits. Never does the stone attempt to react in such a way that it may maintain itself against the blow, much less so as to render the blow a contributing factor to its own continued action. While the living thing may easily be crushed by superior force, it none the less tries to turn the energies which act upon it into means of its own further existence. If it cannot do so, it does not just split into smaller pieces (at least in the higher forms of life), but loses its identity as a living thing.\r\n\r\nAs long as it endures, it struggles to use surrounding energies in its own behalf. It uses light, air, moisture, and the material of soil. To say that it uses them is to say that it turns them into means of its own conservation. As long as it is growing, the energy it expends in thus turning the environment to account is more than compensated for by the return it gets: it grows. Understanding the word \"control\" in this sense, it may be said that a living being is one that subjugates and controls for its own continued activity the energies that would otherwise use it up. Life is a self-renewing process through action upon the environment.\r\n\r\nIn all the higher forms this process cannot be kept up indefinitely. After a while they succumb; they die. The creature is not equal to the task of indefinite self-renewal. But continuity of the life process is not dependent upon the prolongation of the existence of any one individual. Reproduction of other forms of life goes on in continuous sequence. And though, as the geological record shows, not merely individuals but also species die out, the life process continues in increasingly complex forms. As some species die out, forms better adapted to utilize the obstacles against which they struggled in vain come into being. Continuity of life means continual readaptation of the environment to the needs of living organisms.\r\n\r\nWe have been speaking of life in its lowest terms—as a physical thing. But we use the word \"Life\" to denote the whole range of experience, individual and racial. When we see a book called the Life of Lincoln we do not expect to find within its covers a treatise on physiology. We look for an account of social antecedents; a description of early surroundings, of the conditions and occupation of the family; of the chief episodes in the development of character; of signal struggles and achievements; of the individual\'s hopes, tastes, joys and sufferings. In precisely similar fashion we speak of the life of a savage tribe, of the Athenian people, of the American nation. \"Life\" covers customs, institutions, beliefs, victories and defeats, recreations and occupations.\r\n\r\nWe employ the word \"experience\" in the same pregnant sense. And to it, as well as to life in the bare physiological sense, the principle of continuity through renewal applies. With the renewal of physical existence goes, in the case of human beings, the recreation of beliefs, ideals, hopes, happiness, misery, and practices. The continuity of any experience, through renewing of the social group, is a literal fact. Education, in its broadest sense, is the means of this social continuity of life. Every one of the constituent elements of a social group, in a modern city as in a savage tribe, is born immature, helpless, without language, beliefs, ideas, or social standards. Each individual, each unit who is the carrier of the life-experience of his group, in time passes away. Yet the life of the group goes on.\r\n\r\nThe primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the constituent members in a social group determine the necessity of education. On one hand, there is the contrast between the immaturity of the new-born members of the group—its future sole representatives—and the maturity of the adult members who possess the knowledge and customs of the group. On the other hand, there is the necessity that these immature members be not merely physically preserved in adequate numbers, but that they be initiated into the interests, purposes, information, skill, and practices of the mature members: otherwise the group will cease its characteristic life.\r\n\r\nEven in a savage tribe, the achievements of adults are far beyond what the immature members would be capable of if left to themselves. With the growth of civilization, the gap between the original capacities of the immature and the standards and customs of the elders increases. Mere physical growing up, mere mastery of the bare necessities of subsistence will not suffice to reproduce the life of the group. Deliberate effort and the taking of thoughtful pains are required. Beings who are born not only unaware of, but quite indifferent to, the aims and habits of the social group have to be rendered cognizant of them and actively interested. Education, and education alone, spans the gap.\r\n\r\nSociety exists through a process of transmission quite as much as biological life. This transmission occurs by means of communication of habits of doing, thinking, and feeling from the older to the younger. Without this communication of ideals, hopes, expectations, standards, opinions, from those members of society who are passing out of the group life to those who are coming into it, social life could not survive. If the members who compose a society lived on continuously, they might educate the new-born members, but it would be a task directed by personal interest rather than social need. Now it is a work of necessity.\r\n\r\nIf a plague carried off the members of a society all at once, it is obvious that the group would be permanently done for. Yet the death of each of its constituent members is as certain as if an epidemic took them all at once. But the graded difference in age, the fact that some are born as some die, makes possible through transmission of ideas and practices the constant reweaving of the social fabric. Yet this renewal is not automatic. Unless pains are taken to see that genuine and thorough transmission takes place, the most civilized group will relapse into barbarism and then into savagery. In fact, the human young are so immature that if they were left to themselves without the guidance and succor of others, they could not acquire the rudimentary abilities necessary for physical existence. The young of human beings compare so poorly in original efficiency with the young of many of the lower animals, that even the powers needed for physical sustentation have to be acquired under tuition. How much more, then, is this the case with respect to all the technological, artistic, scientific, and moral achievements of humanity!\r\n\r\n2. Education and Communication. So obvious, indeed, is the necessity of teaching and learning for the continued existence of a society that we may seem to be dwelling unduly on a truism. But justification is found in the fact that such emphasis is a means of getting us away from an unduly scholastic and formal notion of education. Schools are, indeed, one important method of the transmission which forms the dispositions of the immature; but it is only one means, and, compared with other agencies, a relatively superficial means. Only as we have grasped the necessity of more fundamental and persistent modes of tuition can we make sure of placing the scholastic methods in their true context.\r\n\r\nSociety not only continues to exist by transmission, by communication, but it may fairly be said to exist in transmission, in communication. There is more than a verbal tie between the words common, community, and communication. Men live in a community in virtue of the things which they have in common; and communication is the way in which they come to possess things in common. What they must have in common in order to form a community or society are aims, beliefs, aspirations, knowledge—a common understanding—like-mindedness as the sociologists say. Such things cannot be passed physically from one to another, like bricks; they cannot be shared as persons would share a pie by dividing it into physical pieces. The communication which insures participation in a common understanding is one which secures similar emotional and intellectual dispositions—like ways of responding to expectations and requirements.\r\n\r\nPersons do not become a society by living in physical proximity, any more than a man ceases to be socially influenced by being so many feet or miles removed from others. A book or a letter may institute a more intimate association between human beings separated thousands of miles from each other than exists between dwellers under the same roof. Individuals do not even compose a social group because they all work for a common end. The parts of a machine work with a maximum of cooperativeness for a common result, but they do not form a community. If, however, they were all cognizant of the common end and all interested in it so that they regulated their specific activity in view of it, then they would form a community. But this would involve communication. Each would have to know what the other was about and would have to have some way of keeping the other informed as to his own purpose and progress. Consensus demands communication.\r\n\r\nWe are thus compelled to recognize that within even the most social group there are many relations which are not as yet social. A large number of human relationships in any social group are still upon the machine-like plane. Individuals use one another so as to get desired results, without reference to the emotional and intellectual disposition and consent of those used. Such uses express physical superiority, or superiority of position, skill, technical ability, and command of tools, mechanical or fiscal. So far as the relations of parent and child, teacher and pupil, employer and employee, governor and governed, remain upon this level, they form no true social group, no matter how closely their respective activities touch one another. Giving and taking of orders modifies action and results, but does not of itself effect a sharing of purposes, a communication of interests.\r\n\r\nNot only is social life identical with communication, but all communication (and hence all genuine social life) is educative. To be a recipient of a communication is to have an enlarged and changed experience. One shares in what another has thought and felt and in so far, meagerly or amply, has his own attitude modified. Nor is the one who communicates left unaffected. Try the experiment of communicating, with fullness and accuracy, some experience to another, especially if it be somewhat complicated, and you will find your own attitude toward your experience changing; otherwise you resort to expletives and ejaculations.\r\n\r\nThe experience has to be formulated in order to be communicated. To formulate requires getting outside of it, seeing it as another would see it, considering what points of contact it has with the life of another so that it may be got into such form that he can appreciate its meaning. Except in dealing with commonplaces and catch phrases one has to assimilate, imaginatively, something of another\'s experience in order to tell him intelligently of one\'s own experience. All communication is like art. It may fairly be said, therefore, that any social arrangement that remains vitally social, or vitally shared, is educative to those who participate in it. Only when it becomes cast in a mold and runs in a routine way does it lose its educative power.\r\n\r\nIn final account, then, not only does social life demand teaching and learning for its own permanence, but the very process of living together educates. It enlarges and enlightens experience; it stimulates and enriches imagination; it creates responsibility for accuracy and vividness of statement and thought. A man really living alone (alone mentally as well as physically) would have little or no occasion to reflect upon his past experience to extract its net meaning. The inequality of achievement between the mature and the immature not only necessitates teaching the young, but the necessity of this teaching gives an immense stimulus to reducing experience to that order and form which will render it most easily communicable and hence most usable.\r\n\r\n3. The Place of Formal Education. There is, accordingly, a marked difference between the education which every one gets from living with others, as long as he really lives instead of just continuing to subsist, and the deliberate educating of the young. In the former case the education is incidental; it is natural and important, but it is not the express reason of the association. While it may be said, without exaggeration, that the measure of the worth of any social institution, economic, domestic, political, legal, religious, is its effect in enlarging and improving experience; yet this effect is not a part of its original motive, which is limited and more immediately practical. Religious associations began, for example, in the desire to secure the favor of overruling powers and to ward off evil influences; family life in the desire to gratify appetites and secure family perpetuity; systematic labor, for the most part, because of enslavement to others, etc.\r\n\r\nOnly gradually was the by-product of the institution, its effect upon the quality and extent of conscious life, noted, and only more gradually still was this effect considered as a directive factor in the conduct of the institution. Even today, in our industrial life, apart from certain values of industriousness and thrift, the intellectual and emotional reaction of the forms of human association under which the world\'s work is carried on receives little attention as compared with physical output.\r\n\r\nBut in dealing with the young, the fact of association itself as an immediate human fact, gains in importance. While it is easy to ignore in our contact with them the effect of our acts upon their disposition, or to subordinate that educative effect to some external and tangible result, it is not so easy as in dealing with adults. The need of training is too evident; the pressure to accomplish a change in their attitude and habits is too urgent to leave these consequences wholly out of account. Since our chief business with them is to enable them to share in a common life we cannot help considering whether or no we are forming the powers which will secure this ability. If humanity has made some headway in realizing that the ultimate value of every institution is its distinctively human effect—its effect upon conscious experience—we may well believe that this lesson has been learned largely through dealings with the young.\r\n\r\nWe are thus led to distinguish, within the broad educational process which we have been so far considering, a more formal kind of education—that of direct tuition or schooling. In undeveloped social groups, we find very little formal teaching and training. Savage groups mainly rely for instilling needed dispositions into the young upon the same sort of association which keeps adults loyal to their group. They have no special devices, material, or institutions for teaching save in connection with initiation ceremonies by which the youth are inducted into full social membership. For the most part, they depend upon children learning the customs of the adults, acquiring their emotional set and stock of ideas, by sharing in what the elders are doing. In part, this sharing is direct, taking part in the occupations of adults and thus serving an apprenticeship; in part, it is indirect, through the dramatic plays in which children reproduce the actions of grown-ups and thus learn to know what they are like. To savages it would seem preposterous to seek out a place where nothing but learning was going on in order that one might learn.\r\n\r\nBut as civilization advances, the gap between the capacities of the young and the concerns of adults widens. Learning by direct sharing in the pursuits of grown-ups becomes increasingly difficult except in the case of the less advanced occupations. Much of what adults do is so remote in space and in meaning that playful imitation is less and less adequate to reproduce its spirit. Ability to share effectively in adult activities thus depends upon a prior training given with this end in view. Intentional agencies—schools—and explicit material—studies—are devised. The task of teaching certain things is delegated to a special group of persons.\r\n\r\nWithout such formal education, it is not possible to transmit all the resources and achievements of a complex society. It also opens a way to a kind of experience which would not be accessible to the young, if they were left to pick up their training in informal association with others, since books and the symbols of knowledge are mastered.\r\n\r\nBut there are conspicuous dangers attendant upon the transition from indirect to formal education. Sharing in actual pursuit, whether directly or vicariously in play, is at least personal and vital. These qualities compensate, in some measure, for the narrowness of available opportunities. Formal instruction, on the contrary, easily becomes remote and dead—abstract and bookish, to use the ordinary words of depreciation. What accumulated knowledge exists in low grade societies is at least put into practice; it is transmuted into character; it exists with the depth of meaning that attaches to its coming within urgent daily interests.\r\n\r\nBut in an advanced culture much which has to be learned is stored in symbols. It is far from translation into familiar acts and objects. Such material is relatively technical and superficial. Taking the ordinary standard of reality as a measure, it is artificial. For this measure is connection with practical concerns. Such material exists in a world by itself, unassimilated to ordinary customs of thought and expression. There is the standing danger that the material of formal instruction will be merely the subject matter of the schools, isolated from the subject matter of life-experience. The permanent social interests are likely to be lost from view. Those which have not been carried over into the structure of social life, but which remain largely matters of technical information expressed in symbols, are made conspicuous in schools. Thus we reach the ordinary notion of education: the notion which ignores its social necessity and its identity with all human association that affects conscious life, and which identifies it with imparting information about remote matters and the conveying of learning through verbal signs: the acquisition of literacy.\r\n\r\nHence one of the weightiest problems with which the philosophy of education has to cope is the method of keeping a proper balance between the informal and the formal, the incidental and the intentional, modes of education. When the acquiring of information and of technical intellectual skill do not influence the formation of a social disposition, ordinary vital experience fails to gain in meaning, while schooling, in so far, creates only \"sharps\" in learning—that is, egoistic specialists. To avoid a split between what men consciously know because they are aware of having learned it by a specific job of learning, and what they unconsciously know because they have absorbed it in the formation of their characters by intercourse with others, becomes an increasingly delicate task with every development of special schooling.\r\n<h2>Summary. It is the very nature of life to strive to continue in being.</h2>\r\nSince this continuance can be secured only by constant renewals, life is a self-renewing process. What nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is to social life. This education consists primarily in transmission through communication. Communication is a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common possession. It modifies the disposition of both the parties who partake in it. That the ulterior significance of every mode of human association lies in the contribution which it makes to the improvement of the quality of experience is a fact most easily recognized in dealing with the immature.\r\n\r\nThat is to say, while every social arrangement is educative in effect, the educative effect first becomes an important part of the purpose of the association in connection with the association of the older with the younger. As societies become more complex in structure and resources, the need of formal or intentional teaching and learning increases. As formal teaching and training grow in extent, there is the danger of creating an undesirable split between the experience gained in more direct associations and what is acquired in school. This danger was never greater than at the present time, on account of the rapid growth in the last few centuries of knowledge and technical modes of skill.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;', 'Education as a Necessity of Life', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'education-as-a-necessity-of-life', '', '', '2023-02-17 18:45:57', '2023-02-17 18:45:57', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13143', 0, 'post', '', 0);
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(13144, 1, '2023-02-17 18:43:45', '2023-02-17 18:43:45', '1. Renewal of Life by Transmission. The most notable distinction between living and inanimate things is that the former maintain themselves by renewal. A stone when struck resists. If its resistance is greater than the force of the blow struck, it remains outwardly unchanged. Otherwise, it is shattered into smaller bits. Never does the stone attempt to react in such a way that it may maintain itself against the blow, much less so as to render the blow a contributing factor to its own continued action. While the living thing may easily be crushed by superior force, it none the less tries to turn the energies which act upon it into means of its own further existence. If it cannot do so, it does not just split into smaller pieces (at least in the higher forms of life), but loses its identity as a living thing.\r\n\r\nAs long as it endures, it struggles to use surrounding energies in its own behalf. It uses light, air, moisture, and the material of soil. To say that it uses them is to say that it turns them into means of its own conservation. As long as it is growing, the energy it expends in thus turning the environment to account is more than compensated for by the return it gets: it grows. Understanding the word \"control\" in this sense, it may be said that a living being is one that subjugates and controls for its own continued activity the energies that would otherwise use it up. Life is a self-renewing process through action upon the environment.\r\n\r\nIn all the higher forms this process cannot be kept up indefinitely. After a while they succumb; they die. The creature is not equal to the task of indefinite self-renewal. But continuity of the life process is not dependent upon the prolongation of the existence of any one individual. Reproduction of other forms of life goes on in continuous sequence. And though, as the geological record shows, not merely individuals but also species die out, the life process continues in increasingly complex forms. As some species die out, forms better adapted to utilize the obstacles against which they struggled in vain come into being. Continuity of life means continual readaptation of the environment to the needs of living organisms.\r\n\r\nWe have been speaking of life in its lowest terms—as a physical thing. But we use the word \"Life\" to denote the whole range of experience, individual and racial. When we see a book called the Life of Lincoln we do not expect to find within its covers a treatise on physiology. We look for an account of social antecedents; a description of early surroundings, of the conditions and occupation of the family; of the chief episodes in the development of character; of signal struggles and achievements; of the individual\'s hopes, tastes, joys and sufferings. In precisely similar fashion we speak of the life of a savage tribe, of the Athenian people, of the American nation. \"Life\" covers customs, institutions, beliefs, victories and defeats, recreations and occupations.\r\n\r\nWe employ the word \"experience\" in the same pregnant sense. And to it, as well as to life in the bare physiological sense, the principle of continuity through renewal applies. With the renewal of physical existence goes, in the case of human beings, the recreation of beliefs, ideals, hopes, happiness, misery, and practices. The continuity of any experience, through renewing of the social group, is a literal fact. Education, in its broadest sense, is the means of this social continuity of life. Every one of the constituent elements of a social group, in a modern city as in a savage tribe, is born immature, helpless, without language, beliefs, ideas, or social standards. Each individual, each unit who is the carrier of the life-experience of his group, in time passes away. Yet the life of the group goes on.\r\n\r\nThe primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the constituent members in a social group determine the necessity of education. On one hand, there is the contrast between the immaturity of the new-born members of the group—its future sole representatives—and the maturity of the adult members who possess the knowledge and customs of the group. On the other hand, there is the necessity that these immature members be not merely physically preserved in adequate numbers, but that they be initiated into the interests, purposes, information, skill, and practices of the mature members: otherwise the group will cease its characteristic life.\r\n\r\nEven in a savage tribe, the achievements of adults are far beyond what the immature members would be capable of if left to themselves. With the growth of civilization, the gap between the original capacities of the immature and the standards and customs of the elders increases. Mere physical growing up, mere mastery of the bare necessities of subsistence will not suffice to reproduce the life of the group. Deliberate effort and the taking of thoughtful pains are required. Beings who are born not only unaware of, but quite indifferent to, the aims and habits of the social group have to be rendered cognizant of them and actively interested. Education, and education alone, spans the gap.\r\n\r\nSociety exists through a process of transmission quite as much as biological life. This transmission occurs by means of communication of habits of doing, thinking, and feeling from the older to the younger. Without this communication of ideals, hopes, expectations, standards, opinions, from those members of society who are passing out of the group life to those who are coming into it, social life could not survive. If the members who compose a society lived on continuously, they might educate the new-born members, but it would be a task directed by personal interest rather than social need. Now it is a work of necessity.\r\n\r\nIf a plague carried off the members of a society all at once, it is obvious that the group would be permanently done for. Yet the death of each of its constituent members is as certain as if an epidemic took them all at once. But the graded difference in age, the fact that some are born as some die, makes possible through transmission of ideas and practices the constant reweaving of the social fabric. Yet this renewal is not automatic. Unless pains are taken to see that genuine and thorough transmission takes place, the most civilized group will relapse into barbarism and then into savagery. In fact, the human young are so immature that if they were left to themselves without the guidance and succor of others, they could not acquire the rudimentary abilities necessary for physical existence. The young of human beings compare so poorly in original efficiency with the young of many of the lower animals, that even the powers needed for physical sustentation have to be acquired under tuition. How much more, then, is this the case with respect to all the technological, artistic, scientific, and moral achievements of humanity!\r\n\r\n2. Education and Communication. So obvious, indeed, is the necessity of teaching and learning for the continued existence of a society that we may seem to be dwelling unduly on a truism. But justification is found in the fact that such emphasis is a means of getting us away from an unduly scholastic and formal notion of education. Schools are, indeed, one important method of the transmission which forms the dispositions of the immature; but it is only one means, and, compared with other agencies, a relatively superficial means. Only as we have grasped the necessity of more fundamental and persistent modes of tuition can we make sure of placing the scholastic methods in their true context.\r\n\r\nSociety not only continues to exist by transmission, by communication, but it may fairly be said to exist in transmission, in communication. There is more than a verbal tie between the words common, community, and communication. Men live in a community in virtue of the things which they have in common; and communication is the way in which they come to possess things in common. What they must have in common in order to form a community or society are aims, beliefs, aspirations, knowledge—a common understanding—like-mindedness as the sociologists say. Such things cannot be passed physically from one to another, like bricks; they cannot be shared as persons would share a pie by dividing it into physical pieces. The communication which insures participation in a common understanding is one which secures similar emotional and intellectual dispositions—like ways of responding to expectations and requirements.\r\n\r\nPersons do not become a society by living in physical proximity, any more than a man ceases to be socially influenced by being so many feet or miles removed from others. A book or a letter may institute a more intimate association between human beings separated thousands of miles from each other than exists between dwellers under the same roof. Individuals do not even compose a social group because they all work for a common end. The parts of a machine work with a maximum of cooperativeness for a common result, but they do not form a community. If, however, they were all cognizant of the common end and all interested in it so that they regulated their specific activity in view of it, then they would form a community. But this would involve communication. Each would have to know what the other was about and would have to have some way of keeping the other informed as to his own purpose and progress. Consensus demands communication.\r\n\r\nWe are thus compelled to recognize that within even the most social group there are many relations which are not as yet social. A large number of human relationships in any social group are still upon the machine-like plane. Individuals use one another so as to get desired results, without reference to the emotional and intellectual disposition and consent of those used. Such uses express physical superiority, or superiority of position, skill, technical ability, and command of tools, mechanical or fiscal. So far as the relations of parent and child, teacher and pupil, employer and employee, governor and governed, remain upon this level, they form no true social group, no matter how closely their respective activities touch one another. Giving and taking of orders modifies action and results, but does not of itself effect a sharing of purposes, a communication of interests.\r\n\r\nNot only is social life identical with communication, but all communication (and hence all genuine social life) is educative. To be a recipient of a communication is to have an enlarged and changed experience. One shares in what another has thought and felt and in so far, meagerly or amply, has his own attitude modified. Nor is the one who communicates left unaffected. Try the experiment of communicating, with fullness and accuracy, some experience to another, especially if it be somewhat complicated, and you will find your own attitude toward your experience changing; otherwise you resort to expletives and ejaculations.\r\n\r\nThe experience has to be formulated in order to be communicated. To formulate requires getting outside of it, seeing it as another would see it, considering what points of contact it has with the life of another so that it may be got into such form that he can appreciate its meaning. Except in dealing with commonplaces and catch phrases one has to assimilate, imaginatively, something of another\'s experience in order to tell him intelligently of one\'s own experience. All communication is like art. It may fairly be said, therefore, that any social arrangement that remains vitally social, or vitally shared, is educative to those who participate in it. Only when it becomes cast in a mold and runs in a routine way does it lose its educative power.\r\n\r\nIn final account, then, not only does social life demand teaching and learning for its own permanence, but the very process of living together educates. It enlarges and enlightens experience; it stimulates and enriches imagination; it creates responsibility for accuracy and vividness of statement and thought. A man really living alone (alone mentally as well as physically) would have little or no occasion to reflect upon his past experience to extract its net meaning. The inequality of achievement between the mature and the immature not only necessitates teaching the young, but the necessity of this teaching gives an immense stimulus to reducing experience to that order and form which will render it most easily communicable and hence most usable.\r\n\r\n3. The Place of Formal Education. There is, accordingly, a marked difference between the education which every one gets from living with others, as long as he really lives instead of just continuing to subsist, and the deliberate educating of the young. In the former case the education is incidental; it is natural and important, but it is not the express reason of the association. While it may be said, without exaggeration, that the measure of the worth of any social institution, economic, domestic, political, legal, religious, is its effect in enlarging and improving experience; yet this effect is not a part of its original motive, which is limited and more immediately practical. Religious associations began, for example, in the desire to secure the favor of overruling powers and to ward off evil influences; family life in the desire to gratify appetites and secure family perpetuity; systematic labor, for the most part, because of enslavement to others, etc.\r\n\r\nOnly gradually was the by-product of the institution, its effect upon the quality and extent of conscious life, noted, and only more gradually still was this effect considered as a directive factor in the conduct of the institution. Even today, in our industrial life, apart from certain values of industriousness and thrift, the intellectual and emotional reaction of the forms of human association under which the world\'s work is carried on receives little attention as compared with physical output.\r\n\r\nBut in dealing with the young, the fact of association itself as an immediate human fact, gains in importance. While it is easy to ignore in our contact with them the effect of our acts upon their disposition, or to subordinate that educative effect to some external and tangible result, it is not so easy as in dealing with adults. The need of training is too evident; the pressure to accomplish a change in their attitude and habits is too urgent to leave these consequences wholly out of account. Since our chief business with them is to enable them to share in a common life we cannot help considering whether or no we are forming the powers which will secure this ability. If humanity has made some headway in realizing that the ultimate value of every institution is its distinctively human effect—its effect upon conscious experience—we may well believe that this lesson has been learned largely through dealings with the young.\r\n\r\nWe are thus led to distinguish, within the broad educational process which we have been so far considering, a more formal kind of education—that of direct tuition or schooling. In undeveloped social groups, we find very little formal teaching and training. Savage groups mainly rely for instilling needed dispositions into the young upon the same sort of association which keeps adults loyal to their group. They have no special devices, material, or institutions for teaching save in connection with initiation ceremonies by which the youth are inducted into full social membership. For the most part, they depend upon children learning the customs of the adults, acquiring their emotional set and stock of ideas, by sharing in what the elders are doing. In part, this sharing is direct, taking part in the occupations of adults and thus serving an apprenticeship; in part, it is indirect, through the dramatic plays in which children reproduce the actions of grown-ups and thus learn to know what they are like. To savages it would seem preposterous to seek out a place where nothing but learning was going on in order that one might learn.\r\n\r\nBut as civilization advances, the gap between the capacities of the young and the concerns of adults widens. Learning by direct sharing in the pursuits of grown-ups becomes increasingly difficult except in the case of the less advanced occupations. Much of what adults do is so remote in space and in meaning that playful imitation is less and less adequate to reproduce its spirit. Ability to share effectively in adult activities thus depends upon a prior training given with this end in view. Intentional agencies—schools—and explicit material—studies—are devised. The task of teaching certain things is delegated to a special group of persons.\r\n\r\nWithout such formal education, it is not possible to transmit all the resources and achievements of a complex society. It also opens a way to a kind of experience which would not be accessible to the young, if they were left to pick up their training in informal association with others, since books and the symbols of knowledge are mastered.\r\n\r\nBut there are conspicuous dangers attendant upon the transition from indirect to formal education. Sharing in actual pursuit, whether directly or vicariously in play, is at least personal and vital. These qualities compensate, in some measure, for the narrowness of available opportunities. Formal instruction, on the contrary, easily becomes remote and dead—abstract and bookish, to use the ordinary words of depreciation. What accumulated knowledge exists in low grade societies is at least put into practice; it is transmuted into character; it exists with the depth of meaning that attaches to its coming within urgent daily interests.\r\n\r\nBut in an advanced culture much which has to be learned is stored in symbols. It is far from translation into familiar acts and objects. Such material is relatively technical and superficial. Taking the ordinary standard of reality as a measure, it is artificial. For this measure is connection with practical concerns. Such material exists in a world by itself, unassimilated to ordinary customs of thought and expression. There is the standing danger that the material of formal instruction will be merely the subject matter of the schools, isolated from the subject matter of life-experience. The permanent social interests are likely to be lost from view. Those which have not been carried over into the structure of social life, but which remain largely matters of technical information expressed in symbols, are made conspicuous in schools. Thus we reach the ordinary notion of education: the notion which ignores its social necessity and its identity with all human association that affects conscious life, and which identifies it with imparting information about remote matters and the conveying of learning through verbal signs: the acquisition of literacy.\r\n\r\nHence one of the weightiest problems with which the philosophy of education has to cope is the method of keeping a proper balance between the informal and the formal, the incidental and the intentional, modes of education. When the acquiring of information and of technical intellectual skill do not influence the formation of a social disposition, ordinary vital experience fails to gain in meaning, while schooling, in so far, creates only \"sharps\" in learning—that is, egoistic specialists. To avoid a split between what men consciously know because they are aware of having learned it by a specific job of learning, and what they unconsciously know because they have absorbed it in the formation of their characters by intercourse with others, becomes an increasingly delicate task with every development of special schooling.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;', 'Education as a Necessity of Life', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13143-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-17 18:43:45', '2023-02-17 18:43:45', '', 13143, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13144', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13145, 1, '2023-02-17 18:45:57', '2023-02-17 18:45:57', '1. Renewal of Life by Transmission. The most notable distinction between living and inanimate things is that the former maintain themselves by renewal. A stone when struck resists. If its resistance is greater than the force of the blow struck, it remains outwardly unchanged. Otherwise, it is shattered into smaller bits. Never does the stone attempt to react in such a way that it may maintain itself against the blow, much less so as to render the blow a contributing factor to its own continued action. While the living thing may easily be crushed by superior force, it none the less tries to turn the energies which act upon it into means of its own further existence. If it cannot do so, it does not just split into smaller pieces (at least in the higher forms of life), but loses its identity as a living thing.\r\n\r\nAs long as it endures, it struggles to use surrounding energies in its own behalf. It uses light, air, moisture, and the material of soil. To say that it uses them is to say that it turns them into means of its own conservation. As long as it is growing, the energy it expends in thus turning the environment to account is more than compensated for by the return it gets: it grows. Understanding the word \"control\" in this sense, it may be said that a living being is one that subjugates and controls for its own continued activity the energies that would otherwise use it up. Life is a self-renewing process through action upon the environment.\r\n\r\nIn all the higher forms this process cannot be kept up indefinitely. After a while they succumb; they die. The creature is not equal to the task of indefinite self-renewal. But continuity of the life process is not dependent upon the prolongation of the existence of any one individual. Reproduction of other forms of life goes on in continuous sequence. And though, as the geological record shows, not merely individuals but also species die out, the life process continues in increasingly complex forms. As some species die out, forms better adapted to utilize the obstacles against which they struggled in vain come into being. Continuity of life means continual readaptation of the environment to the needs of living organisms.\r\n\r\nWe have been speaking of life in its lowest terms—as a physical thing. But we use the word \"Life\" to denote the whole range of experience, individual and racial. When we see a book called the Life of Lincoln we do not expect to find within its covers a treatise on physiology. We look for an account of social antecedents; a description of early surroundings, of the conditions and occupation of the family; of the chief episodes in the development of character; of signal struggles and achievements; of the individual\'s hopes, tastes, joys and sufferings. In precisely similar fashion we speak of the life of a savage tribe, of the Athenian people, of the American nation. \"Life\" covers customs, institutions, beliefs, victories and defeats, recreations and occupations.\r\n\r\nWe employ the word \"experience\" in the same pregnant sense. And to it, as well as to life in the bare physiological sense, the principle of continuity through renewal applies. With the renewal of physical existence goes, in the case of human beings, the recreation of beliefs, ideals, hopes, happiness, misery, and practices. The continuity of any experience, through renewing of the social group, is a literal fact. Education, in its broadest sense, is the means of this social continuity of life. Every one of the constituent elements of a social group, in a modern city as in a savage tribe, is born immature, helpless, without language, beliefs, ideas, or social standards. Each individual, each unit who is the carrier of the life-experience of his group, in time passes away. Yet the life of the group goes on.\r\n\r\nThe primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the constituent members in a social group determine the necessity of education. On one hand, there is the contrast between the immaturity of the new-born members of the group—its future sole representatives—and the maturity of the adult members who possess the knowledge and customs of the group. On the other hand, there is the necessity that these immature members be not merely physically preserved in adequate numbers, but that they be initiated into the interests, purposes, information, skill, and practices of the mature members: otherwise the group will cease its characteristic life.\r\n\r\nEven in a savage tribe, the achievements of adults are far beyond what the immature members would be capable of if left to themselves. With the growth of civilization, the gap between the original capacities of the immature and the standards and customs of the elders increases. Mere physical growing up, mere mastery of the bare necessities of subsistence will not suffice to reproduce the life of the group. Deliberate effort and the taking of thoughtful pains are required. Beings who are born not only unaware of, but quite indifferent to, the aims and habits of the social group have to be rendered cognizant of them and actively interested. Education, and education alone, spans the gap.\r\n\r\nSociety exists through a process of transmission quite as much as biological life. This transmission occurs by means of communication of habits of doing, thinking, and feeling from the older to the younger. Without this communication of ideals, hopes, expectations, standards, opinions, from those members of society who are passing out of the group life to those who are coming into it, social life could not survive. If the members who compose a society lived on continuously, they might educate the new-born members, but it would be a task directed by personal interest rather than social need. Now it is a work of necessity.\r\n\r\nIf a plague carried off the members of a society all at once, it is obvious that the group would be permanently done for. Yet the death of each of its constituent members is as certain as if an epidemic took them all at once. But the graded difference in age, the fact that some are born as some die, makes possible through transmission of ideas and practices the constant reweaving of the social fabric. Yet this renewal is not automatic. Unless pains are taken to see that genuine and thorough transmission takes place, the most civilized group will relapse into barbarism and then into savagery. In fact, the human young are so immature that if they were left to themselves without the guidance and succor of others, they could not acquire the rudimentary abilities necessary for physical existence. The young of human beings compare so poorly in original efficiency with the young of many of the lower animals, that even the powers needed for physical sustentation have to be acquired under tuition. How much more, then, is this the case with respect to all the technological, artistic, scientific, and moral achievements of humanity!\r\n\r\n2. Education and Communication. So obvious, indeed, is the necessity of teaching and learning for the continued existence of a society that we may seem to be dwelling unduly on a truism. But justification is found in the fact that such emphasis is a means of getting us away from an unduly scholastic and formal notion of education. Schools are, indeed, one important method of the transmission which forms the dispositions of the immature; but it is only one means, and, compared with other agencies, a relatively superficial means. Only as we have grasped the necessity of more fundamental and persistent modes of tuition can we make sure of placing the scholastic methods in their true context.\r\n\r\nSociety not only continues to exist by transmission, by communication, but it may fairly be said to exist in transmission, in communication. There is more than a verbal tie between the words common, community, and communication. Men live in a community in virtue of the things which they have in common; and communication is the way in which they come to possess things in common. What they must have in common in order to form a community or society are aims, beliefs, aspirations, knowledge—a common understanding—like-mindedness as the sociologists say. Such things cannot be passed physically from one to another, like bricks; they cannot be shared as persons would share a pie by dividing it into physical pieces. The communication which insures participation in a common understanding is one which secures similar emotional and intellectual dispositions—like ways of responding to expectations and requirements.\r\n\r\nPersons do not become a society by living in physical proximity, any more than a man ceases to be socially influenced by being so many feet or miles removed from others. A book or a letter may institute a more intimate association between human beings separated thousands of miles from each other than exists between dwellers under the same roof. Individuals do not even compose a social group because they all work for a common end. The parts of a machine work with a maximum of cooperativeness for a common result, but they do not form a community. If, however, they were all cognizant of the common end and all interested in it so that they regulated their specific activity in view of it, then they would form a community. But this would involve communication. Each would have to know what the other was about and would have to have some way of keeping the other informed as to his own purpose and progress. Consensus demands communication.\r\n\r\nWe are thus compelled to recognize that within even the most social group there are many relations which are not as yet social. A large number of human relationships in any social group are still upon the machine-like plane. Individuals use one another so as to get desired results, without reference to the emotional and intellectual disposition and consent of those used. Such uses express physical superiority, or superiority of position, skill, technical ability, and command of tools, mechanical or fiscal. So far as the relations of parent and child, teacher and pupil, employer and employee, governor and governed, remain upon this level, they form no true social group, no matter how closely their respective activities touch one another. Giving and taking of orders modifies action and results, but does not of itself effect a sharing of purposes, a communication of interests.\r\n\r\nNot only is social life identical with communication, but all communication (and hence all genuine social life) is educative. To be a recipient of a communication is to have an enlarged and changed experience. One shares in what another has thought and felt and in so far, meagerly or amply, has his own attitude modified. Nor is the one who communicates left unaffected. Try the experiment of communicating, with fullness and accuracy, some experience to another, especially if it be somewhat complicated, and you will find your own attitude toward your experience changing; otherwise you resort to expletives and ejaculations.\r\n\r\nThe experience has to be formulated in order to be communicated. To formulate requires getting outside of it, seeing it as another would see it, considering what points of contact it has with the life of another so that it may be got into such form that he can appreciate its meaning. Except in dealing with commonplaces and catch phrases one has to assimilate, imaginatively, something of another\'s experience in order to tell him intelligently of one\'s own experience. All communication is like art. It may fairly be said, therefore, that any social arrangement that remains vitally social, or vitally shared, is educative to those who participate in it. Only when it becomes cast in a mold and runs in a routine way does it lose its educative power.\r\n\r\nIn final account, then, not only does social life demand teaching and learning for its own permanence, but the very process of living together educates. It enlarges and enlightens experience; it stimulates and enriches imagination; it creates responsibility for accuracy and vividness of statement and thought. A man really living alone (alone mentally as well as physically) would have little or no occasion to reflect upon his past experience to extract its net meaning. The inequality of achievement between the mature and the immature not only necessitates teaching the young, but the necessity of this teaching gives an immense stimulus to reducing experience to that order and form which will render it most easily communicable and hence most usable.\r\n\r\n3. The Place of Formal Education. There is, accordingly, a marked difference between the education which every one gets from living with others, as long as he really lives instead of just continuing to subsist, and the deliberate educating of the young. In the former case the education is incidental; it is natural and important, but it is not the express reason of the association. While it may be said, without exaggeration, that the measure of the worth of any social institution, economic, domestic, political, legal, religious, is its effect in enlarging and improving experience; yet this effect is not a part of its original motive, which is limited and more immediately practical. Religious associations began, for example, in the desire to secure the favor of overruling powers and to ward off evil influences; family life in the desire to gratify appetites and secure family perpetuity; systematic labor, for the most part, because of enslavement to others, etc.\r\n\r\nOnly gradually was the by-product of the institution, its effect upon the quality and extent of conscious life, noted, and only more gradually still was this effect considered as a directive factor in the conduct of the institution. Even today, in our industrial life, apart from certain values of industriousness and thrift, the intellectual and emotional reaction of the forms of human association under which the world\'s work is carried on receives little attention as compared with physical output.\r\n\r\nBut in dealing with the young, the fact of association itself as an immediate human fact, gains in importance. While it is easy to ignore in our contact with them the effect of our acts upon their disposition, or to subordinate that educative effect to some external and tangible result, it is not so easy as in dealing with adults. The need of training is too evident; the pressure to accomplish a change in their attitude and habits is too urgent to leave these consequences wholly out of account. Since our chief business with them is to enable them to share in a common life we cannot help considering whether or no we are forming the powers which will secure this ability. If humanity has made some headway in realizing that the ultimate value of every institution is its distinctively human effect—its effect upon conscious experience—we may well believe that this lesson has been learned largely through dealings with the young.\r\n\r\nWe are thus led to distinguish, within the broad educational process which we have been so far considering, a more formal kind of education—that of direct tuition or schooling. In undeveloped social groups, we find very little formal teaching and training. Savage groups mainly rely for instilling needed dispositions into the young upon the same sort of association which keeps adults loyal to their group. They have no special devices, material, or institutions for teaching save in connection with initiation ceremonies by which the youth are inducted into full social membership. For the most part, they depend upon children learning the customs of the adults, acquiring their emotional set and stock of ideas, by sharing in what the elders are doing. In part, this sharing is direct, taking part in the occupations of adults and thus serving an apprenticeship; in part, it is indirect, through the dramatic plays in which children reproduce the actions of grown-ups and thus learn to know what they are like. To savages it would seem preposterous to seek out a place where nothing but learning was going on in order that one might learn.\r\n\r\nBut as civilization advances, the gap between the capacities of the young and the concerns of adults widens. Learning by direct sharing in the pursuits of grown-ups becomes increasingly difficult except in the case of the less advanced occupations. Much of what adults do is so remote in space and in meaning that playful imitation is less and less adequate to reproduce its spirit. Ability to share effectively in adult activities thus depends upon a prior training given with this end in view. Intentional agencies—schools—and explicit material—studies—are devised. The task of teaching certain things is delegated to a special group of persons.\r\n\r\nWithout such formal education, it is not possible to transmit all the resources and achievements of a complex society. It also opens a way to a kind of experience which would not be accessible to the young, if they were left to pick up their training in informal association with others, since books and the symbols of knowledge are mastered.\r\n\r\nBut there are conspicuous dangers attendant upon the transition from indirect to formal education. Sharing in actual pursuit, whether directly or vicariously in play, is at least personal and vital. These qualities compensate, in some measure, for the narrowness of available opportunities. Formal instruction, on the contrary, easily becomes remote and dead—abstract and bookish, to use the ordinary words of depreciation. What accumulated knowledge exists in low grade societies is at least put into practice; it is transmuted into character; it exists with the depth of meaning that attaches to its coming within urgent daily interests.\r\n\r\nBut in an advanced culture much which has to be learned is stored in symbols. It is far from translation into familiar acts and objects. Such material is relatively technical and superficial. Taking the ordinary standard of reality as a measure, it is artificial. For this measure is connection with practical concerns. Such material exists in a world by itself, unassimilated to ordinary customs of thought and expression. There is the standing danger that the material of formal instruction will be merely the subject matter of the schools, isolated from the subject matter of life-experience. The permanent social interests are likely to be lost from view. Those which have not been carried over into the structure of social life, but which remain largely matters of technical information expressed in symbols, are made conspicuous in schools. Thus we reach the ordinary notion of education: the notion which ignores its social necessity and its identity with all human association that affects conscious life, and which identifies it with imparting information about remote matters and the conveying of learning through verbal signs: the acquisition of literacy.\r\n\r\nHence one of the weightiest problems with which the philosophy of education has to cope is the method of keeping a proper balance between the informal and the formal, the incidental and the intentional, modes of education. When the acquiring of information and of technical intellectual skill do not influence the formation of a social disposition, ordinary vital experience fails to gain in meaning, while schooling, in so far, creates only \"sharps\" in learning—that is, egoistic specialists. To avoid a split between what men consciously know because they are aware of having learned it by a specific job of learning, and what they unconsciously know because they have absorbed it in the formation of their characters by intercourse with others, becomes an increasingly delicate task with every development of special schooling.\r\n<h2>Summary. It is the very nature of life to strive to continue in being.</h2>\r\nSince this continuance can be secured only by constant renewals, life is a self-renewing process. What nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is to social life. This education consists primarily in transmission through communication. Communication is a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common possession. It modifies the disposition of both the parties who partake in it. That the ulterior significance of every mode of human association lies in the contribution which it makes to the improvement of the quality of experience is a fact most easily recognized in dealing with the immature.\r\n\r\nThat is to say, while every social arrangement is educative in effect, the educative effect first becomes an important part of the purpose of the association in connection with the association of the older with the younger. As societies become more complex in structure and resources, the need of formal or intentional teaching and learning increases. As formal teaching and training grow in extent, there is the danger of creating an undesirable split between the experience gained in more direct associations and what is acquired in school. This danger was never greater than at the present time, on account of the rapid growth in the last few centuries of knowledge and technical modes of skill.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;', 'Education as a Necessity of Life', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13143-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-17 18:45:57', '2023-02-17 18:45:57', '', 13143, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13145', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(13146, 1, '2023-02-17 18:59:19', '2023-02-17 18:59:19', '1. <strong>The Nature and Meaning of Environment.</strong> We have seen that a community or social group sustains itself through continuous self-renewal, and that this renewal takes place by means of the educational growth of the immature members of the group. By various agencies, unintentional and designed, a society transforms uninitiated and seemingly alien beings into robust trustees of its own resources and ideals. Education is thus a fostering, a nurturing, a cultivating, process. All of these words mean that it implies attention to the conditions of growth.\r\n\r\nWe also speak of rearing, raising, bringing up—words which express the difference of level which education aims to cover. Etymologically, the word education means just a process of leading or bringing up. When we have the outcome of the process in mind, we speak of education as shaping, forming, molding activity—that is, a shaping into the standard form of social activity. In this chapter we are concerned with the general features of the way in which a social group brings up its immature members into its own social form.\r\n\r\nSince what is required is a transformation of the quality of experience till it partakes in the interests, purposes, and ideas current in the social group, the problem is evidently not one of mere physical forming. Things can be physically transported in space; they may be bodily conveyed. Beliefs and aspirations cannot be physically extracted and inserted. How then are they communicated? Given the impossibility of direct contagion or literal inculcation, our problem is to discover the method by which the young assimilate the point of view of the old, or the older bring the young into like-mindedness with themselves.\r\n\r\nThe answer, in general formulation, is: By means of the action of the environment in calling out certain responses. The required beliefs cannot be hammered in; the needed attitudes cannot be plastered on. But the particular medium in which an individual exists leads him to see and feel one thing rather than another; it leads him to have certain plans in order that he may act successfully with others; it strengthens some beliefs and weakens others as a condition of winning the approval of others. Thus it gradually produces in him a certain system of behavior, a certain disposition of action. The words \"environment,\" \"medium\" denote something more than surroundings which encompass an individual. They denote the specific continuity of the surroundings with his own active tendencies. An inanimate being is, of course, continuous with its surroundings; but the environing circumstances do not, save metaphorically, constitute an environment.\r\n\r\nFor the inorganic being is not concerned in the influences which affect it. On the other hand, some things which are remote in space and time from a living creature, especially a human creature, may form his environment even more truly than some of the things close to him. The things with which a man varies are his genuine environment. Thus the activities of the astronomer vary with the stars at which he gazes or about which he calculates. Of his immediate surroundings, his telescope is most intimately his environment. The environment of an antiquarian, as an antiquarian, consists of the remote epoch of human life with which he is concerned, and the relics, inscriptions, etc., by which he establishes connections with that period.\r\n\r\nIn brief, the environment consists of those conditions that promote or hinder, stimulate or inhibit, the characteristic activities of a living being. Water is the environment of a fish because it is necessary to the fish\'s activities—to its life. The north pole is a significant element in the environment of an arctic explorer, whether he succeeds in reaching it or not, because it defines his activities, makes them what they distinctively are. Just because life signifies not bare passive existence (supposing there is such a thing), but a way of acting, environment or medium signifies what enters into this activity as a sustaining or frustrating condition.\r\n\r\n2. The Social Environment. A being whose activities are associated with others has a social environment. What he does and what he can do depend upon the expectations, demands, approvals, and condemnations of others. A being connected with other beings cannot perform his own activities without taking the activities of others into account. For they are the indispensable conditions of the realization of his tendencies. When he moves he stirs them and reciprocally.\r\n\r\nWe might as well try to imagine a business man doing business, buying and selling, all by himself, as to conceive it possible to define the activities of an individual in terms of his isolated actions. The manufacturer moreover is as truly socially guided in his activities when he is laying plans in the privacy of his own counting house as when he is buying his raw material or selling his finished goods. Thinking and feeling that have to do with action in association with others is as much a social mode of behavior as is the most overt cooperative or hostile act.\r\n\r\nWhat we have more especially to indicate is how the social medium nurtures its immature members. There is no great difficulty in seeing how it shapes the external habits of action. Even dogs and horses have their actions modified by association with human beings; they form different habits because human beings are concerned with what they do. Human beings control animals by controlling the natural stimuli which influence them; by creating a certain environment in other words.\r\n\r\nFood, bits and bridles, noises, vehicles, are used to direct the ways in which the natural or instinctive responses of horses occur. By operating steadily to call out certain acts, habits are formed which function with the same uniformity as the original stimuli. If a rat is put in a maze and finds food only by making a given number of turns in a given sequence, his activity is gradually modified till he habitually takes that course rather than another when he is hungry.\r\n\r\nHuman actions are modified in a like fashion. A burnt child dreads the fire; if a parent arranged conditions so that every time a child touched a certain toy he got burned, the child would learn to avoid that toy as automatically as he avoids touching fire. So far, however, we are dealing with what may be called training in distinction from educative teaching. The changes considered are in outer action rather than in mental and emotional dispositions of behavior. The distinction is not, however, a sharp one.\r\n\r\nThe child might conceivably generate in time a violent antipathy, not only to that particular toy, but to the class of toys resembling it. The aversion might even persist after he had forgotten about the original burns; later on he might even invent some reason to account for his seemingly irrational antipathy. In some cases, altering the external habit of action by changing the environment to affect the stimuli to action will also alter the mental disposition concerned in the action. Yet this does not always happen; a person trained to dodge a threatening blow, dodges automatically with no corresponding thought or emotion. We have to find, then, some differentia of training from education.\r\n\r\nA clew may be found in the fact that the horse does not really share in the social use to which his action is put. Some one else uses the horse to secure a result which is advantageous by making it advantageous to the horse to perform the act—he gets food, etc. But the horse, presumably, does not get any new interest. He remains interested in food, not in the service he is rendering. He is not a partner in a shared activity. Were he to become a copartner, he would, in engaging in the conjoint activity, have the same interest in its accomplishment which others have. He would share their ideas and emotions.\r\n\r\nNow in many cases—too many cases—the activity of the immature human being is simply played upon to secure habits which are useful. He is trained like an animal rather than educated like a human being. His instincts remain attached to their original objects of pain or pleasure. But to get happiness or to avoid the pain of failure he has to act in a way agreeable to others. In other cases, he really shares or participates in the common activity. In this case, his original impulse is modified. He not merely acts in a way agreeing with the actions of others, but, in so acting, the same ideas and emotions are aroused in him that animate the others. A tribe, let us say, is warlike.\r\n\r\nThe successes for which it strives, the achievements upon which it sets store, are connected with fighting and victory. The presence of this medium incites bellicose exhibitions in a boy, first in games, then in fact when he is strong enough. As he fights he wins approval and advancement; as he refrains, he is disliked, ridiculed, shut out from favorable recognition. It is not surprising that his original belligerent tendencies and emotions are strengthened at the expense of others, and that his ideas turn to things connected with war. Only in this way can he become fully a recognized member of his group. Thus his mental habitudes are gradually assimilated to those of his group.\r\n\r\nIf we formulate the principle involved in this illustration, we shall perceive that the social medium neither implants certain desires and ideas directly, nor yet merely establishes certain purely muscular habits of action, like \"instinctively\" winking or dodging a blow. Setting up conditions which stimulate certain visible and tangible ways of acting is the first step. Making the individual a sharer or partner in the associated activity so that he feels its success as his success, its failure as his failure, is the completing step. As soon as he is possessed by the emotional attitude of the group, he will be alert to recognize the special ends at which it aims and the means employed to secure success. His beliefs and ideas, in other words, will take a form similar to those of others in the group. He will also achieve pretty much the same stock of knowledge since that knowledge is an ingredient of his habitual pursuits.\r\n\r\nThe importance of language in gaining knowledge is doubtless the chief cause of the common notion that knowledge may be passed directly from one to another. It almost seems as if all we have to do to convey an idea into the mind of another is to convey a sound into his ear. Thus imparting knowledge gets assimilated to a purely physical process. But learning from language will be found, when analyzed, to confirm the principle just laid down. It would probably be admitted with little hesitation that a child gets the idea of, say, a hat by using it as other persons do; by covering the head with it, giving it to others to wear, having it put on by others when going out, etc. But it may be asked how this principle of shared activity applies to getting through speech or reading the idea of, say, a Greek helmet, where no direct use of any kind enters in. What shared activity is there in learning from books about the discovery of America?\r\n\r\nSince language tends to become the chief instrument of learning about many things, let us see how it works. The baby begins of course with mere sounds, noises, and tones having no meaning, expressing, that is, no idea. Sounds are just one kind of stimulus to direct response, some having a soothing effect, others tending to make one jump, and so on. The sound h-a-t would remain as meaningless as a sound in Choctaw, a seemingly inarticulate grunt, if it were not uttered in connection with an action which is participated in by a number of people. When the mother is taking the infant out of doors, she says \"hat\" as she puts something on the baby\'s head.\r\n\r\nBeing taken out becomes an interest to the child; mother and child not only go out with each other physically, but both are concerned in the going out; they enjoy it in common. By conjunction with the other factors in activity the sound \"hat\" soon gets the same meaning for the child that it has for the parent; it becomes a sign of the activity into which it enters. The bare fact that language consists of sounds which are mutually intelligible is enough of itself to show that its meaning depends upon connection with a shared experience.\r\n\r\nIn short, the sound h-a-t gains meaning in precisely the same way that the thing \"hat\" gains it, by being used in a given way. And they acquire the same meaning with the child which they have with the adult because they are used in a common experience by both. The guarantee for the same manner of use is found in the fact that the thing and the sound are first employed in a joint activity, as a means of setting up an active connection between the child and a grownup.\r\n\r\nSimilar ideas or meanings spring up because both persons are engaged as partners in an action where what each does depends upon and influences what the other does. If two savages were engaged in a joint hunt for game, and a certain signal meant \"move to the right\" to the one who uttered it, and \"move to the left\" to the one who heard it, they obviously could not successfully carry on their hunt together. Understanding one another means that objects, including sounds, have the same value for both with respect to carrying on a common pursuit.\r\n\r\nAfter sounds have got meaning through connection with other things employed in a joint undertaking, they can be used in connection with other like sounds to develop new meanings, precisely as the things for which they stand are combined. Thus the words in which a child learns about, say, the Greek helmet originally got a meaning (or were understood) by use in an action having a common interest and end. They now arouse a new meaning by inciting the one who hears or reads to rehearse imaginatively the activities in which the helmet has its use. For the time being, the one who understands the words \"Greek helmet\" becomes mentally a partner with those who used the helmet. He engages, through his imagination, in a shared activity. It is not easy to get the full meaning of words.\r\n\r\nMost persons probably stop with the idea that \"helmet\" denotes a queer kind of headgear a people called the Greeks once wore. We conclude, accordingly, that the use of language to convey and acquire ideas is an extension and refinement of the principle that things gain meaning by being used in a shared experience or joint action; in no sense does it contravene that principle. When words do not enter as factors into a shared situation, either overtly or imaginatively, they operate as pure physical stimuli, not as having a meaning or intellectual value. They set activity running in a given groove, but there is no accompanying conscious purpose or meaning. Thus, for example, the plus sign may be a stimulus to perform the act of writing one number under another and adding the numbers, but the person performing the act will operate much as an automaton would unless he realizes the meaning of what he does.\r\n\r\n3. The Social Medium as Educative. Our net result thus far is that social environment forms the mental and emotional disposition of behavior in individuals by engaging them in activities that arouse and strengthen certain impulses, that have certain purposes and entail certain consequences. A child growing up in a family of musicians will inevitably have whatever capacities he has in music stimulated, and, relatively, stimulated more than other impulses which might have been awakened in another environment. Save as he takes an interest in music and gains a certain competency in it, he is \"out of it\"; he is unable to share in the life of the group to which he belongs. Some kinds of participation in the life of those with whom the individual is connected are inevitable; with respect to them, the social environment exercises an educative or formative influence unconsciously and apart from any set purpose.\r\n\r\nIn savage and barbarian communities, such direct participation (constituting the indirect or incidental education of which we have spoken) furnishes almost the sole influence for rearing the young into the practices and beliefs of the group. Even in present-day societies, it furnishes the basic nurture of even the most insistently schooled youth. In accord with the interests and occupations of the group, certain things become objects of high esteem; others of aversion. Association does not create impulses or affection and dislike, but it furnishes the objects to which they attach themselves.\r\n\r\nThe way our group or class does things tends to determine the proper objects of attention, and thus to prescribe the directions and limits of observation and memory. What is strange or foreign (that is to say outside the activities of the groups) tends to be morally forbidden and intellectually suspect. It seems almost incredible to us, for example, that things which we know very well could have escaped recognition in past ages. We incline to account for it by attributing congenital stupidity to our forerunners and by assuming superior native intelligence on our own part. But the explanation is that their modes of life did not call for attention to such facts, but held their minds riveted to other things. Just as the senses require sensible objects to stimulate them, so our powers of observation, recollection, and imagination do not work spontaneously, but are set in motion by the demands set up by current social occupations. The main texture of disposition is formed, independently of schooling, by such influences. What conscious, deliberate teaching can do is at most to free the capacities thus formed for fuller exercise, to purge them of some of their grossness, and to furnish objects which make their activity more productive of meaning.\r\n\r\nWhile this \"unconscious influence of the environment\" is so subtle and pervasive that it affects every fiber of character and mind, it may be worth while to specify a few directions in which its effect is most marked. First, the habits of language. Fundamental modes of speech, the bulk of the vocabulary, are formed in the ordinary intercourse of life, carried on not as a set means of instruction but as a social necessity. The babe acquires, as we well say, the mother tongue. While speech habits thus contracted may be corrected or even displaced by conscious teaching, yet, in times of excitement, intentionally acquired modes of speech often fall away, and individuals relapse into their really native tongue. Secondly, manners. Example is notoriously more potent than precept. Good manners come, as we say, from good breeding or rather are good breeding; and breeding is acquired by habitual action, in response to habitual stimuli, not by conveying information.\r\n\r\nDespite the never ending play of conscious correction and instruction, the surrounding atmosphere and spirit is in the end the chief agent in forming manners. And manners are but minor morals. Moreover, in major morals, conscious instruction is likely to be efficacious only in the degree in which it falls in with the general \"walk and conversation\" of those who constitute the child\'s social environment. Thirdly, good taste and esthetic appreciation. If the eye is constantly greeted by harmonious objects, having elegance of form and color, a standard of taste naturally grows up. The effect of a tawdry, unarranged, and over-decorated environment works for the deterioration of taste, just as meager and barren surroundings starve out the desire for beauty. Against such odds, conscious teaching can hardly do more than convey second-hand information as to what others think. Such taste never becomes spontaneous and personally engrained, but remains a labored reminder of what those think to whom one has been taught to look up.\r\n\r\nTo say that the deeper standards of judgments of value are framed by the situations into which a person habitually enters is not so much to mention a fourth point, as it is to point out a fusion of those already mentioned. We rarely recognize the extent in which our conscious estimates of what is worth while and what is not, are due to standards of which we are not conscious at all. But in general it may be said that the things which we take for granted without inquiry or reflection are just the things which determine our conscious thinking and decide our conclusions. And these habitudes which lie below the level of reflection are just those which have been formed in the constant give and take of relationship with others.\r\n\r\n4. The School as a Special Environment. The chief importance of this foregoing statement of the educative process which goes on willy-nilly is to lead us to note that the only way in which adults consciously control the kind of education which the immature get is by controlling the environment in which they act, and hence think and feel. We never educate directly, but indirectly by means of the environment. Whether we permit chance environments to do the work, or whether we design environments for the purpose makes a great difference.\r\n\r\nAnd any environment is a chance environment so far as its educative influence is concerned unless it has been deliberately regulated with reference to its educative effect. An intelligent home differs from an unintelligent one chiefly in that the habits of life and intercourse which prevail are chosen, or at least colored, by the thought of their bearing upon the development of children. But schools remain, of course, the typical instance of environments framed with express reference to influencing the mental and moral disposition of their members.\r\n\r\nRoughly speaking, they come into existence when social traditions are so complex that a considerable part of the social store is committed to writing and transmitted through written symbols. Written symbols are even more artificial or conventional than spoken; they cannot be picked up in accidental intercourse with others. In addition, the written form tends to select and record matters which are comparatively foreign to everyday life. The achievements accumulated from generation to generation are deposited in it even though some of them have fallen temporarily out of use.\r\n\r\nConsequently as soon as a community depends to any considerable extent upon what lies beyond its own territory and its own immediate generation, it must rely upon the set agency of schools to insure adequate transmission of all its resources. To take an obvious illustration: The life of the ancient Greeks and Romans has profoundly influenced our own, and yet the ways in which they affect us do not present themselves on the surface of our ordinary experiences. In similar fashion, peoples still existing, but remote in space, British, Germans, Italians, directly concern our own social affairs, but the nature of the interaction cannot be understood without explicit statement and attention. In precisely similar fashion, our daily associations cannot be trusted to make clear to the young the part played in our activities by remote physical energies, and by invisible structures. Hence a special mode of social intercourse is instituted, the school, to care for such matters.\r\n\r\nThis mode of association has three functions sufficiently specific, as compared with ordinary associations of life, to be noted. First, a complex civilization is too complex to be assimilated in toto. It has to be broken up into portions, as it were, and assimilated piecemeal, in a gradual and graded way. The relationships of our present social life are so numerous and so interwoven that a child placed in the most favorable position could not readily share in many of the most important of them. Not sharing in them, their meaning would not be communicated to him, would not become a part of his own mental disposition. There would be no seeing the trees because of the forest.\r\n\r\nBusiness, politics, art, science, religion, would make all at once a clamor for attention; confusion would be the outcome. The first office of the social organ we call the school is to provide a simplified environment. It selects the features which are fairly fundamental and capable of being responded to by the young. Then it establishes a progressive order, using the factors first acquired as means of gaining insight into what is more complicated.\r\n\r\nIn the second place, it is the business of the school environment to eliminate, so far as possible, the unworthy features of the existing environment from influence upon mental habitudes. It establishes a purified medium of action. Selection aims not only at simplifying but at weeding out what is undesirable. Every society gets encumbered with what is trivial, with dead wood from the past, and with what is positively perverse. The school has the duty of omitting such things from the environment which it supplies, and thereby doing what it can to counteract their influence in the ordinary social environment. By selecting the best for its exclusive use, it strives to reinforce the power of this best. As a society becomes more enlightened, it realizes that it is responsible not to transmit and conserve the whole of its existing achievements, but only such as make for a better future society. The school is its chief agency for the accomplishment of this end.\r\n\r\nIn the third place, it is the office of the school environment to balance the various elements in the social environment, and to see to it that each individual gets an opportunity to escape from the limitations of the social group in which he was born, and to come into living contact with a broader environment. Such words as \"society\" and \"community\" are likely to be misleading, for they have a tendency to make us think there is a single thing corresponding to the single word. As a matter of fact, a modern society is many societies more or less loosely connected.\r\n\r\nEach household with its immediate extension of friends makes a society; the village or street group of playmates is a community; each business group, each club, is another. Passing beyond these more intimate groups, there is in a country like our own a variety of races, religious affiliations, economic divisions. Inside the modern city, in spite of its nominal political unity, there are probably more communities, more differing customs, traditions, aspirations, and forms of government or control, than existed in an entire continent at an earlier epoch.\r\n\r\nEach such group exercises a formative influence on the active dispositions of its members. A clique, a club, a gang, a Fagin\'s household of thieves, the prisoners in a jail, provide educative environments for those who enter into their collective or conjoint activities, as truly as a church, a labor union, a business partnership, or a political party. Each of them is a mode of associated or community life, quite as much as is a family, a town, or a state. There are also communities whose members have little or no direct contact with one another, like the guild of artists, the republic of letters, the members of the professional learned class scattered over the face of the earth. For they have aims in common, and the activity of each member is directly modified by knowledge of what others are doing.\r\n\r\nIn the olden times, the diversity of groups was largely a geographical matter. There were many societies, but each, within its own territory, was comparatively homogeneous. But with the development of commerce, transportation, intercommunication, and emigration, countries like the United States are composed of a combination of different groups with different traditional customs. It is this situation which has, perhaps more than any other one cause, forced the demand for an educational institution which shall provide something like a homogeneous and balanced environment for the young.\r\n\r\nOnly in this way can the centrifugal forces set up by juxtaposition of different groups within one and the same political unit be counteracted. The intermingling in the school of youth of different races, differing religions, and unlike customs creates for all a new and broader environment. Common subject matter accustoms all to a unity of outlook upon a broader horizon than is visible to the members of any group while it is isolated. The assimilative force of the American public school is eloquent testimony to the efficacy of the common and balanced appeal.\r\n\r\nThe school has the function also of coordinating within the disposition of each individual the diverse influences of the various social environments into which he enters. One code prevails in the family; another, on the street; a third, in the workshop or store; a fourth, in the religious association. As a person passes from one of the environments to another, he is subjected to antagonistic pulls, and is in danger of being split into a being having different standards of judgment and emotion for different occasions. This danger imposes upon the school a steadying and integrating office.\r\n<h2>Summary- Education as a Social Function</h2>\r\nThe development within the young of the attitudes and dispositions necessary to the continuous and progressive life of a society cannot take place by direct conveyance of beliefs, emotions, and knowledge. It takes place through the intermediary of the environment. The environment consists of the sum total of conditions which are concerned in the execution of the activity characteristic of a living being. The social environment consists of all the activities of fellow beings that are bound up in the carrying on of the activities of any one of its members. It is truly educative in its effect in the degree in which an individual shares or participates in some conjoint activity. By doing his share in the associated activity, the individual appropriates the purpose which actuates it, becomes familiar with its methods and subject matters, acquires needed skill, and is saturated with its emotional spirit.\r\n\r\nThe deeper and more intimate educative formation of disposition comes, without conscious intent, as the young gradually partake of the activities of the various groups to which they may belong. As a society becomes more complex, however, it is found necessary to provide a special social environment which shall especially look after nurturing the capacities of the immature. Three of the more important functions of this special environment are: simplifying and ordering the factors of the disposition it is wished to develop; purifying and idealizing the existing social customs; creating a wider and better balanced environment than that by which the young would be likely, if left to themselves, to be influenced.', 'Education as a Social Function', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'education-as-a-social-function', '', '', '2023-02-17 18:59:19', '2023-02-17 18:59:19', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13146', 0, 'post', '', 0);
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(13147, 1, '2023-02-17 18:59:19', '2023-02-17 18:59:19', '1. <strong>The Nature and Meaning of Environment.</strong> We have seen that a community or social group sustains itself through continuous self-renewal, and that this renewal takes place by means of the educational growth of the immature members of the group. By various agencies, unintentional and designed, a society transforms uninitiated and seemingly alien beings into robust trustees of its own resources and ideals. Education is thus a fostering, a nurturing, a cultivating, process. All of these words mean that it implies attention to the conditions of growth.\r\n\r\nWe also speak of rearing, raising, bringing up—words which express the difference of level which education aims to cover. Etymologically, the word education means just a process of leading or bringing up. When we have the outcome of the process in mind, we speak of education as shaping, forming, molding activity—that is, a shaping into the standard form of social activity. In this chapter we are concerned with the general features of the way in which a social group brings up its immature members into its own social form.\r\n\r\nSince what is required is a transformation of the quality of experience till it partakes in the interests, purposes, and ideas current in the social group, the problem is evidently not one of mere physical forming. Things can be physically transported in space; they may be bodily conveyed. Beliefs and aspirations cannot be physically extracted and inserted. How then are they communicated? Given the impossibility of direct contagion or literal inculcation, our problem is to discover the method by which the young assimilate the point of view of the old, or the older bring the young into like-mindedness with themselves.\r\n\r\nThe answer, in general formulation, is: By means of the action of the environment in calling out certain responses. The required beliefs cannot be hammered in; the needed attitudes cannot be plastered on. But the particular medium in which an individual exists leads him to see and feel one thing rather than another; it leads him to have certain plans in order that he may act successfully with others; it strengthens some beliefs and weakens others as a condition of winning the approval of others. Thus it gradually produces in him a certain system of behavior, a certain disposition of action. The words \"environment,\" \"medium\" denote something more than surroundings which encompass an individual. They denote the specific continuity of the surroundings with his own active tendencies. An inanimate being is, of course, continuous with its surroundings; but the environing circumstances do not, save metaphorically, constitute an environment.\r\n\r\nFor the inorganic being is not concerned in the influences which affect it. On the other hand, some things which are remote in space and time from a living creature, especially a human creature, may form his environment even more truly than some of the things close to him. The things with which a man varies are his genuine environment. Thus the activities of the astronomer vary with the stars at which he gazes or about which he calculates. Of his immediate surroundings, his telescope is most intimately his environment. The environment of an antiquarian, as an antiquarian, consists of the remote epoch of human life with which he is concerned, and the relics, inscriptions, etc., by which he establishes connections with that period.\r\n\r\nIn brief, the environment consists of those conditions that promote or hinder, stimulate or inhibit, the characteristic activities of a living being. Water is the environment of a fish because it is necessary to the fish\'s activities—to its life. The north pole is a significant element in the environment of an arctic explorer, whether he succeeds in reaching it or not, because it defines his activities, makes them what they distinctively are. Just because life signifies not bare passive existence (supposing there is such a thing), but a way of acting, environment or medium signifies what enters into this activity as a sustaining or frustrating condition.\r\n\r\n2. The Social Environment. A being whose activities are associated with others has a social environment. What he does and what he can do depend upon the expectations, demands, approvals, and condemnations of others. A being connected with other beings cannot perform his own activities without taking the activities of others into account. For they are the indispensable conditions of the realization of his tendencies. When he moves he stirs them and reciprocally.\r\n\r\nWe might as well try to imagine a business man doing business, buying and selling, all by himself, as to conceive it possible to define the activities of an individual in terms of his isolated actions. The manufacturer moreover is as truly socially guided in his activities when he is laying plans in the privacy of his own counting house as when he is buying his raw material or selling his finished goods. Thinking and feeling that have to do with action in association with others is as much a social mode of behavior as is the most overt cooperative or hostile act.\r\n\r\nWhat we have more especially to indicate is how the social medium nurtures its immature members. There is no great difficulty in seeing how it shapes the external habits of action. Even dogs and horses have their actions modified by association with human beings; they form different habits because human beings are concerned with what they do. Human beings control animals by controlling the natural stimuli which influence them; by creating a certain environment in other words.\r\n\r\nFood, bits and bridles, noises, vehicles, are used to direct the ways in which the natural or instinctive responses of horses occur. By operating steadily to call out certain acts, habits are formed which function with the same uniformity as the original stimuli. If a rat is put in a maze and finds food only by making a given number of turns in a given sequence, his activity is gradually modified till he habitually takes that course rather than another when he is hungry.\r\n\r\nHuman actions are modified in a like fashion. A burnt child dreads the fire; if a parent arranged conditions so that every time a child touched a certain toy he got burned, the child would learn to avoid that toy as automatically as he avoids touching fire. So far, however, we are dealing with what may be called training in distinction from educative teaching. The changes considered are in outer action rather than in mental and emotional dispositions of behavior. The distinction is not, however, a sharp one.\r\n\r\nThe child might conceivably generate in time a violent antipathy, not only to that particular toy, but to the class of toys resembling it. The aversion might even persist after he had forgotten about the original burns; later on he might even invent some reason to account for his seemingly irrational antipathy. In some cases, altering the external habit of action by changing the environment to affect the stimuli to action will also alter the mental disposition concerned in the action. Yet this does not always happen; a person trained to dodge a threatening blow, dodges automatically with no corresponding thought or emotion. We have to find, then, some differentia of training from education.\r\n\r\nA clew may be found in the fact that the horse does not really share in the social use to which his action is put. Some one else uses the horse to secure a result which is advantageous by making it advantageous to the horse to perform the act—he gets food, etc. But the horse, presumably, does not get any new interest. He remains interested in food, not in the service he is rendering. He is not a partner in a shared activity. Were he to become a copartner, he would, in engaging in the conjoint activity, have the same interest in its accomplishment which others have. He would share their ideas and emotions.\r\n\r\nNow in many cases—too many cases—the activity of the immature human being is simply played upon to secure habits which are useful. He is trained like an animal rather than educated like a human being. His instincts remain attached to their original objects of pain or pleasure. But to get happiness or to avoid the pain of failure he has to act in a way agreeable to others. In other cases, he really shares or participates in the common activity. In this case, his original impulse is modified. He not merely acts in a way agreeing with the actions of others, but, in so acting, the same ideas and emotions are aroused in him that animate the others. A tribe, let us say, is warlike.\r\n\r\nThe successes for which it strives, the achievements upon which it sets store, are connected with fighting and victory. The presence of this medium incites bellicose exhibitions in a boy, first in games, then in fact when he is strong enough. As he fights he wins approval and advancement; as he refrains, he is disliked, ridiculed, shut out from favorable recognition. It is not surprising that his original belligerent tendencies and emotions are strengthened at the expense of others, and that his ideas turn to things connected with war. Only in this way can he become fully a recognized member of his group. Thus his mental habitudes are gradually assimilated to those of his group.\r\n\r\nIf we formulate the principle involved in this illustration, we shall perceive that the social medium neither implants certain desires and ideas directly, nor yet merely establishes certain purely muscular habits of action, like \"instinctively\" winking or dodging a blow. Setting up conditions which stimulate certain visible and tangible ways of acting is the first step. Making the individual a sharer or partner in the associated activity so that he feels its success as his success, its failure as his failure, is the completing step. As soon as he is possessed by the emotional attitude of the group, he will be alert to recognize the special ends at which it aims and the means employed to secure success. His beliefs and ideas, in other words, will take a form similar to those of others in the group. He will also achieve pretty much the same stock of knowledge since that knowledge is an ingredient of his habitual pursuits.\r\n\r\nThe importance of language in gaining knowledge is doubtless the chief cause of the common notion that knowledge may be passed directly from one to another. It almost seems as if all we have to do to convey an idea into the mind of another is to convey a sound into his ear. Thus imparting knowledge gets assimilated to a purely physical process. But learning from language will be found, when analyzed, to confirm the principle just laid down. It would probably be admitted with little hesitation that a child gets the idea of, say, a hat by using it as other persons do; by covering the head with it, giving it to others to wear, having it put on by others when going out, etc. But it may be asked how this principle of shared activity applies to getting through speech or reading the idea of, say, a Greek helmet, where no direct use of any kind enters in. What shared activity is there in learning from books about the discovery of America?\r\n\r\nSince language tends to become the chief instrument of learning about many things, let us see how it works. The baby begins of course with mere sounds, noises, and tones having no meaning, expressing, that is, no idea. Sounds are just one kind of stimulus to direct response, some having a soothing effect, others tending to make one jump, and so on. The sound h-a-t would remain as meaningless as a sound in Choctaw, a seemingly inarticulate grunt, if it were not uttered in connection with an action which is participated in by a number of people. When the mother is taking the infant out of doors, she says \"hat\" as she puts something on the baby\'s head.\r\n\r\nBeing taken out becomes an interest to the child; mother and child not only go out with each other physically, but both are concerned in the going out; they enjoy it in common. By conjunction with the other factors in activity the sound \"hat\" soon gets the same meaning for the child that it has for the parent; it becomes a sign of the activity into which it enters. The bare fact that language consists of sounds which are mutually intelligible is enough of itself to show that its meaning depends upon connection with a shared experience.\r\n\r\nIn short, the sound h-a-t gains meaning in precisely the same way that the thing \"hat\" gains it, by being used in a given way. And they acquire the same meaning with the child which they have with the adult because they are used in a common experience by both. The guarantee for the same manner of use is found in the fact that the thing and the sound are first employed in a joint activity, as a means of setting up an active connection between the child and a grownup.\r\n\r\nSimilar ideas or meanings spring up because both persons are engaged as partners in an action where what each does depends upon and influences what the other does. If two savages were engaged in a joint hunt for game, and a certain signal meant \"move to the right\" to the one who uttered it, and \"move to the left\" to the one who heard it, they obviously could not successfully carry on their hunt together. Understanding one another means that objects, including sounds, have the same value for both with respect to carrying on a common pursuit.\r\n\r\nAfter sounds have got meaning through connection with other things employed in a joint undertaking, they can be used in connection with other like sounds to develop new meanings, precisely as the things for which they stand are combined. Thus the words in which a child learns about, say, the Greek helmet originally got a meaning (or were understood) by use in an action having a common interest and end. They now arouse a new meaning by inciting the one who hears or reads to rehearse imaginatively the activities in which the helmet has its use. For the time being, the one who understands the words \"Greek helmet\" becomes mentally a partner with those who used the helmet. He engages, through his imagination, in a shared activity. It is not easy to get the full meaning of words.\r\n\r\nMost persons probably stop with the idea that \"helmet\" denotes a queer kind of headgear a people called the Greeks once wore. We conclude, accordingly, that the use of language to convey and acquire ideas is an extension and refinement of the principle that things gain meaning by being used in a shared experience or joint action; in no sense does it contravene that principle. When words do not enter as factors into a shared situation, either overtly or imaginatively, they operate as pure physical stimuli, not as having a meaning or intellectual value. They set activity running in a given groove, but there is no accompanying conscious purpose or meaning. Thus, for example, the plus sign may be a stimulus to perform the act of writing one number under another and adding the numbers, but the person performing the act will operate much as an automaton would unless he realizes the meaning of what he does.\r\n\r\n3. The Social Medium as Educative. Our net result thus far is that social environment forms the mental and emotional disposition of behavior in individuals by engaging them in activities that arouse and strengthen certain impulses, that have certain purposes and entail certain consequences. A child growing up in a family of musicians will inevitably have whatever capacities he has in music stimulated, and, relatively, stimulated more than other impulses which might have been awakened in another environment. Save as he takes an interest in music and gains a certain competency in it, he is \"out of it\"; he is unable to share in the life of the group to which he belongs. Some kinds of participation in the life of those with whom the individual is connected are inevitable; with respect to them, the social environment exercises an educative or formative influence unconsciously and apart from any set purpose.\r\n\r\nIn savage and barbarian communities, such direct participation (constituting the indirect or incidental education of which we have spoken) furnishes almost the sole influence for rearing the young into the practices and beliefs of the group. Even in present-day societies, it furnishes the basic nurture of even the most insistently schooled youth. In accord with the interests and occupations of the group, certain things become objects of high esteem; others of aversion. Association does not create impulses or affection and dislike, but it furnishes the objects to which they attach themselves.\r\n\r\nThe way our group or class does things tends to determine the proper objects of attention, and thus to prescribe the directions and limits of observation and memory. What is strange or foreign (that is to say outside the activities of the groups) tends to be morally forbidden and intellectually suspect. It seems almost incredible to us, for example, that things which we know very well could have escaped recognition in past ages. We incline to account for it by attributing congenital stupidity to our forerunners and by assuming superior native intelligence on our own part. But the explanation is that their modes of life did not call for attention to such facts, but held their minds riveted to other things. Just as the senses require sensible objects to stimulate them, so our powers of observation, recollection, and imagination do not work spontaneously, but are set in motion by the demands set up by current social occupations. The main texture of disposition is formed, independently of schooling, by such influences. What conscious, deliberate teaching can do is at most to free the capacities thus formed for fuller exercise, to purge them of some of their grossness, and to furnish objects which make their activity more productive of meaning.\r\n\r\nWhile this \"unconscious influence of the environment\" is so subtle and pervasive that it affects every fiber of character and mind, it may be worth while to specify a few directions in which its effect is most marked. First, the habits of language. Fundamental modes of speech, the bulk of the vocabulary, are formed in the ordinary intercourse of life, carried on not as a set means of instruction but as a social necessity. The babe acquires, as we well say, the mother tongue. While speech habits thus contracted may be corrected or even displaced by conscious teaching, yet, in times of excitement, intentionally acquired modes of speech often fall away, and individuals relapse into their really native tongue. Secondly, manners. Example is notoriously more potent than precept. Good manners come, as we say, from good breeding or rather are good breeding; and breeding is acquired by habitual action, in response to habitual stimuli, not by conveying information.\r\n\r\nDespite the never ending play of conscious correction and instruction, the surrounding atmosphere and spirit is in the end the chief agent in forming manners. And manners are but minor morals. Moreover, in major morals, conscious instruction is likely to be efficacious only in the degree in which it falls in with the general \"walk and conversation\" of those who constitute the child\'s social environment. Thirdly, good taste and esthetic appreciation. If the eye is constantly greeted by harmonious objects, having elegance of form and color, a standard of taste naturally grows up. The effect of a tawdry, unarranged, and over-decorated environment works for the deterioration of taste, just as meager and barren surroundings starve out the desire for beauty. Against such odds, conscious teaching can hardly do more than convey second-hand information as to what others think. Such taste never becomes spontaneous and personally engrained, but remains a labored reminder of what those think to whom one has been taught to look up.\r\n\r\nTo say that the deeper standards of judgments of value are framed by the situations into which a person habitually enters is not so much to mention a fourth point, as it is to point out a fusion of those already mentioned. We rarely recognize the extent in which our conscious estimates of what is worth while and what is not, are due to standards of which we are not conscious at all. But in general it may be said that the things which we take for granted without inquiry or reflection are just the things which determine our conscious thinking and decide our conclusions. And these habitudes which lie below the level of reflection are just those which have been formed in the constant give and take of relationship with others.\r\n\r\n4. The School as a Special Environment. The chief importance of this foregoing statement of the educative process which goes on willy-nilly is to lead us to note that the only way in which adults consciously control the kind of education which the immature get is by controlling the environment in which they act, and hence think and feel. We never educate directly, but indirectly by means of the environment. Whether we permit chance environments to do the work, or whether we design environments for the purpose makes a great difference.\r\n\r\nAnd any environment is a chance environment so far as its educative influence is concerned unless it has been deliberately regulated with reference to its educative effect. An intelligent home differs from an unintelligent one chiefly in that the habits of life and intercourse which prevail are chosen, or at least colored, by the thought of their bearing upon the development of children. But schools remain, of course, the typical instance of environments framed with express reference to influencing the mental and moral disposition of their members.\r\n\r\nRoughly speaking, they come into existence when social traditions are so complex that a considerable part of the social store is committed to writing and transmitted through written symbols. Written symbols are even more artificial or conventional than spoken; they cannot be picked up in accidental intercourse with others. In addition, the written form tends to select and record matters which are comparatively foreign to everyday life. The achievements accumulated from generation to generation are deposited in it even though some of them have fallen temporarily out of use.\r\n\r\nConsequently as soon as a community depends to any considerable extent upon what lies beyond its own territory and its own immediate generation, it must rely upon the set agency of schools to insure adequate transmission of all its resources. To take an obvious illustration: The life of the ancient Greeks and Romans has profoundly influenced our own, and yet the ways in which they affect us do not present themselves on the surface of our ordinary experiences. In similar fashion, peoples still existing, but remote in space, British, Germans, Italians, directly concern our own social affairs, but the nature of the interaction cannot be understood without explicit statement and attention. In precisely similar fashion, our daily associations cannot be trusted to make clear to the young the part played in our activities by remote physical energies, and by invisible structures. Hence a special mode of social intercourse is instituted, the school, to care for such matters.\r\n\r\nThis mode of association has three functions sufficiently specific, as compared with ordinary associations of life, to be noted. First, a complex civilization is too complex to be assimilated in toto. It has to be broken up into portions, as it were, and assimilated piecemeal, in a gradual and graded way. The relationships of our present social life are so numerous and so interwoven that a child placed in the most favorable position could not readily share in many of the most important of them. Not sharing in them, their meaning would not be communicated to him, would not become a part of his own mental disposition. There would be no seeing the trees because of the forest.\r\n\r\nBusiness, politics, art, science, religion, would make all at once a clamor for attention; confusion would be the outcome. The first office of the social organ we call the school is to provide a simplified environment. It selects the features which are fairly fundamental and capable of being responded to by the young. Then it establishes a progressive order, using the factors first acquired as means of gaining insight into what is more complicated.\r\n\r\nIn the second place, it is the business of the school environment to eliminate, so far as possible, the unworthy features of the existing environment from influence upon mental habitudes. It establishes a purified medium of action. Selection aims not only at simplifying but at weeding out what is undesirable. Every society gets encumbered with what is trivial, with dead wood from the past, and with what is positively perverse. The school has the duty of omitting such things from the environment which it supplies, and thereby doing what it can to counteract their influence in the ordinary social environment. By selecting the best for its exclusive use, it strives to reinforce the power of this best. As a society becomes more enlightened, it realizes that it is responsible not to transmit and conserve the whole of its existing achievements, but only such as make for a better future society. The school is its chief agency for the accomplishment of this end.\r\n\r\nIn the third place, it is the office of the school environment to balance the various elements in the social environment, and to see to it that each individual gets an opportunity to escape from the limitations of the social group in which he was born, and to come into living contact with a broader environment. Such words as \"society\" and \"community\" are likely to be misleading, for they have a tendency to make us think there is a single thing corresponding to the single word. As a matter of fact, a modern society is many societies more or less loosely connected.\r\n\r\nEach household with its immediate extension of friends makes a society; the village or street group of playmates is a community; each business group, each club, is another. Passing beyond these more intimate groups, there is in a country like our own a variety of races, religious affiliations, economic divisions. Inside the modern city, in spite of its nominal political unity, there are probably more communities, more differing customs, traditions, aspirations, and forms of government or control, than existed in an entire continent at an earlier epoch.\r\n\r\nEach such group exercises a formative influence on the active dispositions of its members. A clique, a club, a gang, a Fagin\'s household of thieves, the prisoners in a jail, provide educative environments for those who enter into their collective or conjoint activities, as truly as a church, a labor union, a business partnership, or a political party. Each of them is a mode of associated or community life, quite as much as is a family, a town, or a state. There are also communities whose members have little or no direct contact with one another, like the guild of artists, the republic of letters, the members of the professional learned class scattered over the face of the earth. For they have aims in common, and the activity of each member is directly modified by knowledge of what others are doing.\r\n\r\nIn the olden times, the diversity of groups was largely a geographical matter. There were many societies, but each, within its own territory, was comparatively homogeneous. But with the development of commerce, transportation, intercommunication, and emigration, countries like the United States are composed of a combination of different groups with different traditional customs. It is this situation which has, perhaps more than any other one cause, forced the demand for an educational institution which shall provide something like a homogeneous and balanced environment for the young.\r\n\r\nOnly in this way can the centrifugal forces set up by juxtaposition of different groups within one and the same political unit be counteracted. The intermingling in the school of youth of different races, differing religions, and unlike customs creates for all a new and broader environment. Common subject matter accustoms all to a unity of outlook upon a broader horizon than is visible to the members of any group while it is isolated. The assimilative force of the American public school is eloquent testimony to the efficacy of the common and balanced appeal.\r\n\r\nThe school has the function also of coordinating within the disposition of each individual the diverse influences of the various social environments into which he enters. One code prevails in the family; another, on the street; a third, in the workshop or store; a fourth, in the religious association. As a person passes from one of the environments to another, he is subjected to antagonistic pulls, and is in danger of being split into a being having different standards of judgment and emotion for different occasions. This danger imposes upon the school a steadying and integrating office.\r\n<h2>Summary- Education as a Social Function</h2>\r\nThe development within the young of the attitudes and dispositions necessary to the continuous and progressive life of a society cannot take place by direct conveyance of beliefs, emotions, and knowledge. It takes place through the intermediary of the environment. The environment consists of the sum total of conditions which are concerned in the execution of the activity characteristic of a living being. The social environment consists of all the activities of fellow beings that are bound up in the carrying on of the activities of any one of its members. It is truly educative in its effect in the degree in which an individual shares or participates in some conjoint activity. By doing his share in the associated activity, the individual appropriates the purpose which actuates it, becomes familiar with its methods and subject matters, acquires needed skill, and is saturated with its emotional spirit.\r\n\r\nThe deeper and more intimate educative formation of disposition comes, without conscious intent, as the young gradually partake of the activities of the various groups to which they may belong. As a society becomes more complex, however, it is found necessary to provide a special social environment which shall especially look after nurturing the capacities of the immature. Three of the more important functions of this special environment are: simplifying and ordering the factors of the disposition it is wished to develop; purifying and idealizing the existing social customs; creating a wider and better balanced environment than that by which the young would be likely, if left to themselves, to be influenced.', 'Education as a Social Function', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13146-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-17 18:59:19', '2023-02-17 18:59:19', '', 13146, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13147', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(13148, 1, '2023-02-17 19:12:48', '2023-02-17 19:12:48', '<h3>1. The Environment as Directive.</h3>\r\nWe now pass to one of the special forms which the general function of education assumes: namely, that of direction, control, or guidance. Of these three words, direction, control, and guidance, the last best conveys the idea of assisting through cooperation the natural capacities of the individuals guided; control conveys rather the notion of an energy brought to bear from without and meeting some resistance from the one controlled; direction is a more neutral term and suggests the fact that the active tendencies of those directed are led in a certain continuous course, instead of dispersing aimlessly. Direction expresses the basic function, which tends at one extreme to become a guiding assistance and at another, a regulation or ruling.\r\n\r\nBut in any case, we must carefully avoid a meaning sometimes read into the term \"control.\" It is sometimes assumed, explicitly or unconsciously, that an individual\'s tendencies are naturally purely individualistic or egoistic, and thus antisocial. Control then denotes the process by which he is brought to subordinate his natural impulses to public or common ends. Since, by conception, his own nature is quite alien to this process and opposes it rather than helps it, control has in this view a flavor of coercion or compulsion about it. Systems of government and theories of the state have been built upon this notion, and it has seriously affected educational ideas and practices. But there is no ground for any such view. Individuals are certainly interested, at times, in having their own way, and their own way may go contrary to the ways of others. But they are also interested, and chiefly interested upon the whole, in entering into the activities of others and taking part in conjoint and cooperative doings. Otherwise, no such thing as a community would be possible. And there would not even be any one interested in furnishing the policeman to keep a semblance of harmony unless he thought that thereby he could gain some personal advantage. Control, in truth, means only an emphatic form of direction of powers, and covers the regulation gained by an individual through his own efforts quite as much as that brought about when others take the lead.\r\n\r\nIn general, every stimulus directs activity. It does not simply excite it or stir it up, but directs it toward an object. Put the other way around, a response is not just a re-action, a protest, as it were, against being disturbed; it is, as the word indicates, an answer. It meets the stimulus, and corresponds with it. There is an adaptation of the stimulus and response to each other. A light is the stimulus to the eye to see something, and the business of the eye is to see. If the eyes are open and there is light, seeing occurs; the stimulus is but a condition of the fulfillment of the proper function of the organ, not an outside interruption. To some extent, then, all direction or control is a guiding of activity to its own end; it is an assistance in doing fully what some organ is already tending to do.\r\n\r\nThis general statement needs, however, to be qualified in two respects. In the first place, except in the case of a small number of instincts, the stimuli to which an immature human being is subject are not sufficiently definite to call out, in the beginning, specific responses. There is always a great deal of superfluous energy aroused. This energy may be wasted, going aside from the point; it may also go against the successful performance of an act. It does harm by getting in the way. Compare the behavior of a beginner in riding a bicycle with that of the expert. There is little axis of direction in the energies put forth; they are largely dispersive and centrifugal. Direction involves a focusing and fixating of action in order that it may be truly a response, and this requires an elimination of unnecessary and confusing movements.\r\n\r\nIn the second place, although no activity can be produced in which the person does not cooperate to some extent, yet a response may be of a kind which does not fit into the sequence and continuity of action. A person boxing may dodge a particular blow successfully, but in such a way as to expose himself the next instant to a still harder blow. Adequate control means that the successive acts are brought into a continuous order; each act not only meets its immediate stimulus but helps the acts which follow.\r\n\r\nIn short, direction is both simultaneous and successive. At a given time, it requires that, from all the tendencies that are partially called out, those be selected which center energy upon the point of need. Successively, it requires that each act be balanced with those which precede and come after, so that order of activity is achieved. Focusing and ordering are thus the two aspects of direction, one spatial, the other temporal. The first insures hitting the mark; the second keeps the balance required for further action. Obviously, it is not possible to separate them in practice as we have distinguished them in idea. Activity must be centered at a given time in such a way as to prepare for what comes next. The problem of the immediate response is complicated by one\'s having to be on the lookout for future occurrences.\r\n\r\nTwo conclusions emerge from these general statements. On the one hand, purely external direction is impossible. The environment can at most only supply stimuli to call out responses. These responses proceed from tendencies already possessed by the individual. Even when a person is frightened by threats into doing something, the threats work only because the person has an instinct of fear. If he has not, or if, though having it, it is under his own control, the threat has no more influence upon him than light has in causing a person to see who has no eyes.\r\n\r\nWhile the customs and rules of adults furnish stimuli which direct as well as evoke the activities of the young, the young, after all, participate in the direction which their actions finally take. In the strict sense, nothing can be forced upon them or into them. To overlook this fact means to distort and pervert human nature. To take into account the contribution made by the existing instincts and habits of those directed is to direct them economically and wisely. Speaking accurately, all direction is but re-direction; it shifts the activities already going on into another channel. Unless one is cognizant of the energies which are already in operation, one\'s attempts at direction will almost surely go amiss.\r\n\r\nOn the other hand, the control afforded by the customs and regulations of others may be short-sighted. It may accomplish its immediate effect, but at the expense of throwing the subsequent action of the person out of balance. A threat may, for example, prevent a person from doing something to which he is naturally inclined by arousing fear of disagreeable consequences if he persists. But he may be left in the position which exposes him later on to influences which will lead him to do even worse things. His instincts of cunning and slyness may be aroused, so that things henceforth appeal to him on the side of evasion and trickery more than would otherwise have been the case. Those engaged in directing the actions of others are always in danger of overlooking the importance of the sequential development of those they direct.\r\n\r\n2. Modes of Social Direction. Adults are naturally most conscious of directing the conduct of others when they are immediately aiming so to do. As a rule, they have such an aim consciously when they find themselves resisted; when others are doing things they do not wish them to do. But the more permanent and influential modes of control are those which operate from moment to moment continuously without such deliberate intention on our part.\r\n\r\n1. When others are not doing what we would like them to or are threatening disobedience, we are most conscious of the need of controlling them and of the influences by which they are controlled. In such cases, our control becomes most direct, and at this point we are most likely to make the mistakes just spoken of. We are even likely to take the influence of superior force for control, forgetting that while we may lead a horse to water we cannot make him drink; and that while we can shut a man up in a penitentiary we cannot make him penitent. In all such cases of immediate action upon others, we need to discriminate between physical results and moral results. A person may be in such a condition that forcible feeding or enforced confinement is necessary for his own good. A child may have to be snatched with roughness away from a fire so that he shall not be burnt. But no improvement of disposition, no educative effect, need follow.\r\n\r\nA harsh and commanding tone may be effectual in keeping a child away from the fire, and the same desirable physical effect will follow as if he had been snatched away. But there may be no more obedience of a moral sort in one case than in the other. A man can be prevented from breaking into other persons\' houses by shutting him up, but shutting him up may not alter his disposition to commit burglary. When we confuse a physical with an educative result, we always lose the chance of enlisting the person\'s own participating disposition in getting the result desired, and thereby of developing within him an intrinsic and persisting direction in the right way.\r\n\r\nIn general, the occasion for the more conscious acts of control should be limited to acts which are so instinctive or impulsive that the one performing them has no means of foreseeing their outcome. If a person cannot foresee the consequences of his act, and is not capable of understanding what he is told about its outcome by those with more experience, it is impossible for him to guide his act intelligently. In such a state, every act is alike to him. Whatever moves him does move him, and that is all there is to it.\r\n\r\nIn some cases, it is well to permit him to experiment, and to discover the consequences for himself in order that he may act intelligently next time under similar circumstances. But some courses of action are too discommoding and obnoxious to others to allow of this course being pursued. Direct disapproval is now resorted to. Shaming, ridicule, disfavor, rebuke, and punishment are used. Or contrary tendencies in the child are appealed to to divert him from his troublesome line of behavior. His sensitiveness to approbation, his hope of winning favor by an agreeable act, are made use of to induce action in another direction.\r\n\r\n2. These methods of control are so obvious (because so intentionally employed) that it would hardly be worth while to mention them if it were not that notice may now be taken, by way of contrast, of the other more important and permanent mode of control. This other method resides in the ways in which persons, with whom the immature being is associated, use things; the instrumentalities with which they accomplish their own ends. The very existence of the social medium in which an individual lives, moves, and has his being is the standing effective agency of directing his activity.\r\n\r\nThis fact makes it necessary for us to examine in greater detail what is meant by the social environment. We are given to separating from each other the physical and social environments in which we live. The separation is responsible on one hand for an exaggeration of the moral importance of the more direct or personal modes of control of which we have been speaking; and on the other hand for an exaggeration, in current psychology and philosophy, of the intellectual possibilities of contact with a purely physical environment. There is not, in fact, any such thing as the direct influence of one human being on another apart from use of the physical environment as an intermediary. A smile, a frown, a rebuke, a word of warning or encouragement, all involve some physical change. Otherwise, the attitude of one would not get over to alter the attitude of another.\r\n\r\nComparatively speaking, such modes of influence may be regarded as personal. The physical medium is reduced to a mere means of personal contact. In contrast with such direct modes of mutual influence, stand associations in common pursuits involving the use of things as means and as measures of results. Even if the mother never told her daughter to help her, or never rebuked her for not helping, the child would be subjected to direction in her activities by the mere fact that she was engaged, along with the parent, in the household life. Imitation, emulation, the need of working together, enforce control.\r\n\r\nIf the mother hands the child something needed, the latter must reach the thing in order to get it. Where there is giving there must be taking. The way the child handles the thing after it is got, the use to which it is put, is surely influenced by the fact that the child has watched the mother. When the child sees the parent looking for something, it is as natural for it also to look for the object and to give it over when it finds it, as it was, under other circumstances, to receive it. Multiply such an instance by the thousand details of daily intercourse, and one has a picture of the most permanent and enduring method of giving direction to the activities of the young.\r\n\r\nIn saying this, we are only repeating what was said previously about participating in a joint activity as the chief way of forming disposition. We have explicitly added, however, the recognition of the part played in the joint activity by the use of things. The philosophy of learning has been unduly dominated by a false psychology. It is frequently <a href=\"/forums/forum/topic/learning-outcome-benchmarks-for-primary-education-in-lagos-state/\" title=\"Learning Outcome Benchmarks For Primary Education in Lagos State\">stated that a person learns</a> by merely having the qualities of things impressed upon his mind through the gateway of the senses. Having received a store of sensory impressions, association or some power of mental synthesis is supposed to combine them into ideas—into things with a meaning. An object, stone, orange, tree, chair, is supposed to convey different impressions of color, shape, size, hardness, smell, taste, etc., which aggregated together constitute the characteristic meaning of each thing. But as matter of fact, it is the characteristic use to which the thing is put, because of its specific qualities, which supplies the meaning with which it is identified. A chair is a thing which is put to one use; a table, a thing which is employed for another purpose; an orange is a thing which costs so much, which is grown in warm climes, which is eaten, and when eaten has an agreeable odor and refreshing taste, etc.\r\n\r\nThe difference between an adjustment to a physical stimulus and a mental act is that the latter involves response to a thing in its meaning; the former does not. A noise may make me jump without my mind being implicated. When I hear a noise and run and get water and put out a blaze, I respond intelligently; the sound meant fire, and fire meant need of being extinguished. I bump into a stone, and kick it to one side purely physically. I put it to one side for fear some one will stumble upon it, intelligently; I respond to a meaning which the thing has. I am startled by a thunderclap whether I recognize it or not—more likely, if I do not recognize it. But if I say, either out loud or to myself, that is thunder, I respond to the disturbance as a meaning. My behavior has a mental quality. When things have a meaning for us, we mean (intend, propose) what we do: when they do not, we act blindly, unconsciously, unintelligently.\r\n\r\nIn both kinds of responsive adjustment, our activities are directed or controlled. But in the merely blind response, direction is also blind. There may be training, but there is no education. Repeated responses to recurrent stimuli may fix a habit of acting in a certain way. All of us have many habits of whose import we are quite unaware, since they were formed without our knowing what we were about. Consequently they possess us, rather than we them. They move us; they control us. Unless we become aware of what they accomplish, and pass judgment upon the worth of the result, we do not control them. A child might be made to bow every time he met a certain person by pressure on his neck muscles, and bowing would finally become automatic. It would not, however, be an act of recognition or deference on his part, till he did it with a certain end in view—as having a certain meaning.\r\n\r\nAnd not till he knew what he was about and performed the act for the sake of its meaning could he be said to be \"brought up\" or educated to act in a certain way. To have an idea of a thing is thus not just to get certain sensations from it. It is to be able to respond to the thing in view of its place in an inclusive scheme of action; it is to foresee the drift and probable consequence of the action of the thing upon us and of our action upon it. To have the same ideas about things which others have, to be like-minded with them, and thus to be really members of a social group, is therefore to attach the same meanings to things and to acts which others attach. Otherwise, there is no common understanding, and no community life. But in a shared activity, each person refers what he is doing to what the other is doing and vice-versa. That is, the activity of each is placed in the same inclusive situation. To pull at a rope at which others happen to be pulling is not a shared or conjoint activity, unless the pulling is done with knowledge that others are pulling and for the sake of either helping or hindering what they are doing.\r\n\r\nA pin may pass in the course of its manufacture through the hands of many persons. But each may do his part without knowledge of what others do or without any reference to what they do; each may operate simply for the sake of a separate result—his own pay. There is, in this case, no common consequence to which the several acts are referred, and hence no genuine intercourse or association, in spite of juxtaposition, and in spite of the fact that their respective doings contribute to a single outcome. But if each views the consequences of his own acts as having a bearing upon what others are doing and takes into account the consequences of their behavior upon himself, then there is a common mind; a common intent in behavior. There is an understanding set up between the different contributors; and this common understanding controls the action of each.\r\n\r\nSuppose that conditions were so arranged that one person automatically caught a ball and then threw it to another person who caught and automatically returned it; and that each so acted without knowing where the ball came from or went to. Clearly, such action would be without point or meaning. It might be physically controlled, but it would not be socially directed. But suppose that each becomes aware of what the other is doing, and becomes interested in the other\'s action and thereby interested in what he is doing himself as connected with the action of the other. The behavior of each would then be intelligent; and socially intelligent and guided. Take one more example of a less imaginary kind. An infant is hungry, and cries while food is prepared in his presence. If he does not connect his own state with what others are doing, nor what they are doing with his own satisfaction, he simply reacts with increasing impatience to his own increasing discomfort. He is physically controlled by his own organic state.\r\n\r\nBut when he makes a back and forth reference, his whole attitude changes. He takes an interest, as we say; he takes note and watches what others are doing. He no longer reacts just to his own hunger, but behaves in the light of what others are doing for its prospective satisfaction. In that way, he also no longer just gives way to hunger without knowing it, but he notes, or recognizes, or identifies his own state. It becomes an object for him. His attitude toward it becomes in some degree intelligent. And in such noting of the meaning of the actions of others and of his own state, he is socially directed.\r\n\r\nIt will be recalled that our main proposition had two sides. One of them has now been dealt with: namely, that physical things do not influence mind (or form ideas and beliefs) except as they are implicated in action for prospective consequences. The other point is persons modify one another\'s dispositions only through the special use they make of physical conditions. Consider first the case of so-called expressive movements to which others are sensitive; blushing, smiling, frowning, clinching of fists, natural gestures of all kinds. In themselves, these are not expressive. They are organic parts of a person\'s attitude.\r\n\r\nOne does not blush to show modesty or embarrassment to others, but because the capillary circulation alters in response to stimuli. But others use the blush, or a slightly perceptible tightening of the muscles of a person with whom they are associated, as a sign of the state in which that person finds himself, and as an indication of what course to pursue. The frown signifies an imminent rebuke for which one must prepare, or an uncertainty and hesitation which one must, if possible, remove by saying or doing something to restore confidence. A man at some distance is waving his arms wildly. One has only to preserve an attitude of detached indifference, and the motions of the other person will be on the level of any remote physical change which we happen to note. If we have no concern or interest, the waving of the arms is as meaningless to us as the gyrations of the arms of a windmill. But if interest is aroused, we begin to participate.\r\n\r\nWe refer his action to something we are doing ourselves or that we should do. We have to judge the meaning of his act in order to decide what to do. Is he beckoning for help? Is he warning us of an explosion to be set off, against which we should guard ourselves? In one case, his action means to run toward him; in the other case, to run away. In any case, it is the change he effects in the physical environment which is a sign to us of how we should conduct ourselves. Our action is socially controlled because we endeavor to refer what we are to do to the same situation in which he is acting.\r\n\r\nLanguage is, as we have already seen (ante, p. 15) a case of this joint reference of our own action and that of another to a common situation. Hence its unrivaled significance as a means of social direction. But language would not be this efficacious instrument were it not that it takes place upon a background of coarser and more tangible use of physical means to accomplish results. A child sees persons with whom he lives using chairs, hats, tables, spades, saws, plows, horses, money in certain ways. If he has any share at all in what they are doing, he is led thereby to use things in the same way, or to use other things in a way which will fit in.\r\n\r\nIf a chair is drawn up to a table, it is a sign that he is to sit in it; if a person extends his right hand, he is to extend his; and so on in a never ending stream of detail. The prevailing habits of using the products of human art and the raw materials of nature constitute by all odds the deepest and most pervasive mode of social control. When children go to school, they already have \"minds\"—they have knowledge and dispositions of judgment which may be appealed to through the use of language. But these \"minds\" are the organized habits of intelligent response which they have previously required by putting things to use in connection with the way other persons use things. The control is inescapable; it saturates disposition. The net outcome of the discussion is that the fundamental means of control is not personal but intellectual.\r\n\r\nIt is not \"moral\" in the sense that a person is moved by direct personal appeal from others, important as is this method at critical junctures. It consists in the habits of understanding, which are set up in using objects in correspondence with others, whether by way of cooperation and assistance or rivalry and competition. Mind as a concrete thing is precisely the power to understand things in terms of the use made of them; a socialized mind is the power to understand them in terms of the use to which they are turned in joint or shared situations. And mind in this sense is the method of social control.\r\n\r\n3. Imitation and Social Psychology. We have already noted the defects of a psychology of learning which places the individual mind naked, as it were, in contact with physical objects, and which believes that knowledge, ideas, and beliefs accrue from their interaction. Only comparatively recently has the predominating influence of association with fellow beings in the formation of mental and moral disposition been perceived. Even now it is usually treated as a kind of adjunct to an alleged method of learning by direct contact with things, and as merely supplementing knowledge of the physical world with knowledge of persons. The purport of our discussion is that such a view makes an absurd and impossible separation between persons and things. Interaction with things may form habits of external adjustment.\r\n\r\nBut it leads to activity having a meaning and conscious intent only when things are used to produce a result. And the only way one person can modify the mind of another is by using physical conditions, crude or artificial, so as to evoke some answering activity from him. Such are our two main conclusions. It is desirable to amplify and enforce them by placing them in contrast with the theory which uses a psychology of supposed direct relationships of human beings to one another as an adjunct to the psychology of the supposed direct relation of an individual to physical objects. In substance, this so-called social psychology has been built upon the notion of imitation. Consequently, we shall discuss the nature and role of imitation in the formation of mental disposition.\r\n\r\nAccording to this theory, social control of individuals rests upon the instinctive tendency of individuals to imitate or copy the actions of others. The latter serve as models. The imitative instinct is so strong that the young devote themselves to conforming to the patterns set by others and reproducing them in their own scheme of behavior. According to our theory, what is here called imitation is a misleading name for partaking with others in a use of things which leads to consequences of common interest. The basic error in the current notion of imitation is that it puts the cart before the horse. It takes an effect for the cause of the effect.\r\n\r\nThere can be no doubt that individuals in forming a social group are like-minded; they understand one another. They tend to act with the same controlling ideas, beliefs, and intentions, given similar circumstances. Looked at from without, they might be said to be engaged in \"imitating\" one another. In the sense that they are doing much the same sort of thing in much the same sort of way, this would be true enough. But \"imitation\" throws no light upon why they so act; it repeats the fact as an explanation of itself. It is an explanation of the same order as the famous saying that opium puts men to sleep because of its dormitive power.\r\n\r\nObjective likeness of acts and the mental satisfaction found in being in conformity with others are baptized by the name imitation. This social fact is then taken for a psychological force, which produced the likeness. A considerable portion of what is called imitation is simply the fact that persons being alike in structure respond in the same way to like stimuli. Quite independently of imitation, men on being insulted get angry and attack the insulter. This statement may be met by citing the undoubted fact that response to an insult takes place in different ways in groups having different customs. In one group, it may be met by recourse to fisticuffs, in another by a challenge to a duel, in a third by an exhibition of contemptuous disregard.\r\n\r\nThis happens, so it is said, because the model set for imitation is different. But there is no need to appeal to imitation. The mere fact that customs are different means that the actual stimuli to behavior are different. Conscious instruction plays a part; prior approvals and disapprovals have a large influence. Still more effective is the fact that unless an individual acts in the way current in his group, he is literally out of it. He can associate with others on intimate and equal terms only by behaving in the way in which they behave. The pressure that comes from the fact that one is let into the group action by acting in one way and shut out by acting in another way is unremitting. What is called the effect of imitation is mainly the product of conscious instruction and of the selective influence exercised by the unconscious confirmations and ratifications of those with whom one associates.\r\n\r\nSuppose that some one rolls a ball to a child; he catches it and rolls it back, and the game goes on. Here the stimulus is not just the sight of the ball, or the sight of the other rolling it. It is the situation—the game which is playing. The response is not merely rolling the ball back; it is rolling it back so that the other one may catch and return it,—that the game may continue. The \"pattern\" or model is not the action of the other person. The whole situation requires that each should adapt his action in view of what the other person has done and is to do. Imitation may come in but its role is subordinate. The child has an interest on his own account; he wants to keep it going. He may then note how the other person catches and holds the ball in order to improve his own acts. He imitates the means of doing, not the end or thing to be done. And he imitates the means because he wishes, on his own behalf, as part of his own initiative, to take an effective part in the game.\r\n\r\nOne has only to consider how completely the child is dependent from his earliest days for successful execution of his purposes upon fitting his acts into those of others to see what a premium is put upon behaving as others behave, and of developing an understanding of them in order that he may so behave. The pressure for likemindedness in action from this source is so great that it is quite superfluous to appeal to imitation. As matter of fact, imitation of ends, as distinct from imitation of means which help to reach ends, is a superficial and transitory affair which leaves little effect upon disposition.\r\n\r\nIdiots are especially apt at this kind of imitation; it affects outward acts but not the meaning of their performance. When we find children engaging in this sort of mimicry, instead of encouraging them (as we would do if it were an important means of social control) we are more likely to rebuke them as apes, monkeys, parrots, or copy cats. Imitation of means of accomplishment is, on the other hand, an intelligent act. It involves close observation, and judicious selection of what will enable one to do better something which he already is trying to do. Used for a purpose, the imitative instinct may, like any other instinct, become a factor in the development of effective action.\r\n\r\nThis excursus should, accordingly, have the effect of reinforcing the conclusion that genuine social control means the formation of a certain mental disposition; a way of understanding objects, events, and acts which enables one to participate effectively in associated activities. Only the friction engendered by meeting resistance from others leads to the view that it takes place by forcing a line of action contrary to natural inclinations. Only failure to take account of the situations in which persons are mutually concerned (or interested in acting responsively to one another) leads to treating imitation as the chief agent in promoting social control.\r\n\r\n4. Some Applications to Education. Why does a savage group perpetuate savagery, and a civilized group civilization? Doubtless the first answer to occur to mind is because savages are savages; being of low-grade intelligence and perhaps defective moral sense. But careful study has made it doubtful whether their native capacities are appreciably inferior to those of civilized man. It has made it certain that native differences are not sufficient to account for the difference in culture. In a sense the mind of savage peoples is an effect, rather than a cause, of their backward institutions. Their social activities are such as to restrict their objects of attention and interest, and hence to limit the stimuli to mental development. Even as regards the objects that come within the scope of attention, primitive social customs tend to arrest observation and imagination upon qualities which do not fructify in the mind.\r\n\r\nLack of control of natural forces means that a scant number of natural objects enter into associated behavior. Only a small number of natural resources are utilized and they are not worked for what they are worth. The advance of civilization means that a larger number of natural forces and objects have been transformed into instrumentalities of action, into means for securing ends. We start not so much with superior capacities as with superior stimuli for evocation and direction of our capacities. The savage deals largely with crude stimuli; we have weighted stimuli. Prior human efforts have made over natural conditions. As they originally existed they were indifferent to human endeavors.\r\n\r\nEvery domesticated plant and animal, every tool, every utensil, every appliance, every manufactured article, every esthetic decoration, every work of art means a transformation of conditions once hostile or indifferent to characteristic human activities into friendly and favoring conditions. Because the activities of children today are controlled by these selected and charged stimuli, children are able to traverse in a short lifetime what the race has needed slow, tortured ages to attain. The dice have been loaded by all the successes which have preceded.\r\n\r\nStimuli conducive to economical and effective response, such as our system of roads and means of transportation, our ready command of heat, light, and electricity, our ready-made machines and apparatus for every purpose, do not, by themselves or in their aggregate, constitute a civilization. But the uses to which they are put are civilization, and without the things the uses would be impossible. Time otherwise necessarily devoted to wresting a livelihood from a grudging environment and securing a precarious protection against its inclemencies is freed. A body of knowledge is transmitted, the legitimacy of which is guaranteed by the fact that the physical equipment in which it is incarnated leads to results that square with the other facts of nature. Thus these appliances of art supply a protection, perhaps our chief protection, against a recrudescence of these superstitious beliefs, those fanciful myths and infertile imaginings about nature in which so much of the best intellectual power of the past has been spent. If we add one other factor, namely, that such appliances be not only used, but used in the interests of a truly shared or associated life, then the appliances become the positive resources of civilization.\r\n\r\nIf Greece, with a scant tithe of our material resources, achieved a worthy and noble intellectual and artistic career, it is because Greece operated for social ends such resources as it had. But whatever the situation, whether one of barbarism or civilization, whether one of stinted control of physical forces, or of partial enslavement to a mechanism not yet made tributary to a shared experience, things as they enter into action furnish the educative conditions of daily life and direct the formation of mental and moral disposition.\r\n\r\nIntentional education signifies, as we have already seen, a specially selected environment, the selection being made on the basis of materials and method specifically promoting growth in the desired direction. Since language represents the physical conditions that have been subjected to the maximum transformation in the interests of social life—physical things which have lost their original quality in becoming social tools—it is appropriate that language should play a large part compared with other appliances. By it we are led to share vicariously in past human experience, thus widening and enriching the experience of the present. We are enabled, symbolically and imaginatively, to anticipate situations. In countless ways, language condenses meanings that record social outcomes and presage social outlooks. So significant is it of a liberal share in what is worth while in life that unlettered and uneducated have become almost synonymous.\r\n\r\nThe emphasis in school upon this particular tool has, however, its dangers—dangers which are not theoretical but exhibited in practice. Why is it, in spite of the fact that teaching by pouring in, learning by a passive absorption, are universally condemned, that they are still so entrenched in practice? That education is not an affair of \"telling\" and being told, but an active and constructive process, is a principle almost as generally violated in practice as conceded in theory. Is not this deplorable situation due to the fact that the doctrine is itself merely told? It is preached; it is lectured; it is written about.\r\n\r\nBut its enactment into practice requires that the school environment be equipped with agencies for doing, with tools and physical materials, to an extent rarely attained. It requires that methods of instruction and administration be modified to allow and to secure direct and continuous occupations with things. Not that the use of language as an educational resource should lessen; but that its use should be more vital and fruitful by having its normal connection with shared activities. \"These things ought ye to have done, and not to have left the others undone.\" And for the school \"these things\" mean equipment with the instrumentalities of cooperative or joint activity.\r\n\r\nFor when the schools depart from the educational conditions effective in the out-of-school environment, they necessarily substitute a bookish, a pseudo-intellectual spirit for a social spirit. Children doubtless go to school to learn, but it has yet to be proved that learning occurs most adequately when it is made a separate conscious business. When treating it as a business of this sort tends to preclude the social sense which comes from sharing in an activity of common concern and value, the effort at isolated intellectual learning contradicts its own aim.\r\n\r\nWe may secure motor activity and sensory excitation by keeping an individual by himself, but we cannot thereby get him to understand the meaning which things have in the life of which he is a part. We may secure technical specialized ability in algebra, Latin, or botany, but not the kind of intelligence which directs ability to useful ends. Only by engaging in a joint activity, where one person\'s use of material and tools is consciously referred to the use other persons are making of their capacities and appliances, is a social direction of disposition attained.\r\n<h2>Summary - Education as Direction</h2>\r\nThe natural or native impulses of the young do not agree with the life-customs of the group into which they are born. Consequently they have to be directed or guided. This control is not the same thing as physical compulsion; it consists in centering the impulses acting at any one time upon some specific end and in introducing an order of continuity into the sequence of acts. The action of others is always influenced by deciding what stimuli shall call out their actions. But in some cases as in commands, prohibitions, approvals, and disapprovals, the stimuli proceed from persons with a direct view to influencing action. Since in such cases we are most conscious of controlling the action of others, we are likely to exaggerate the importance of this sort of control at the expense of a more permanent and effective method.\r\n\r\nThe basic control resides in the nature of the situations in which the young take part. In social situations the young have to refer their way of acting to what others are doing and make it fit in. This directs their action to a common result, and gives an understanding common to the participants. For all mean the same thing, even when performing different acts. This common understanding of the means and ends of action is the essence of social control. It is indirect, or emotional and intellectual, not direct or personal. Moreover it is intrinsic to the disposition of the person, not external and coercive. To achieve this internal control through identity of interest and understanding is the business of education. While books and conversation can do much, these agencies are usually relied upon too exclusively. Schools require for their full efficiency more opportunity for conjoint activities in which those instructed take part, so that they may acquire a social sense of their own powers and of the materials and appliances used.', 'Education as Direction', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'education-as-direction', '', '', '2023-04-23 14:35:59', '2023-04-23 14:35:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13148', 0, 'post', '', 0);
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(13150, 1, '2023-02-17 19:54:06', '2023-02-17 19:54:06', '<h3>1. The Environment as Directive.</h3>\nWe now pass to one of the special forms which the general function of education assumes: namely, that of direction, control, or guidance. Of these three words, direction, control, and guidance, the last best conveys the idea of assisting through cooperation the natural capacities of the individuals guided; control conveys rather the notion of an energy brought to bear from without and meeting some resistance from the one controlled; direction is a more neutral term and suggests the fact that the active tendencies of those directed are led in a certain continuous course, instead of dispersing aimlessly. Direction expresses the basic function, which tends at one extreme to become a guiding assistance and at another, a regulation or ruling.\n\nBut in any case, we must carefully avoid a meaning sometimes read into the term \"control.\" It is sometimes assumed, explicitly or unconsciously, that an individual\'s tendencies are naturally purely individualistic or egoistic, and thus antisocial. Control then denotes the process by which he is brought to subordinate his natural impulses to public or common ends. Since, by conception, his own nature is quite alien to this process and opposes it rather than helps it, control has in this view a flavor of coercion or compulsion about it. Systems of government and theories of the state have been built upon this notion, and it has seriously affected educational ideas and practices. But there is no ground for any such view. Individuals are certainly interested, at times, in having their own way, and their own way may go contrary to the ways of others. But they are also interested, and chiefly interested upon the whole, in entering into the activities of others and taking part in conjoint and cooperative doings. Otherwise, no such thing as a community would be possible. And there would not even be any one interested in furnishing the policeman to keep a semblance of harmony unless he thought that thereby he could gain some personal advantage. Control, in truth, means only an emphatic form of direction of powers, and covers the regulation gained by an individual through his own efforts quite as much as that brought about when others take the lead.\n\nIn general, every stimulus directs activity. It does not simply excite it or stir it up, but directs it toward an object. Put the other way around, a response is not just a re-action, a protest, as it were, against being disturbed; it is, as the word indicates, an answer. It meets the stimulus, and corresponds with it. There is an adaptation of the stimulus and response to each other. A light is the stimulus to the eye to see something, and the business of the eye is to see. If the eyes are open and there is light, seeing occurs; the stimulus is but a condition of the fulfillment of the proper function of the organ, not an outside interruption. To some extent, then, all direction or control is a guiding of activity to its own end; it is an assistance in doing fully what some organ is already tending to do.\n\nThis general statement needs, however, to be qualified in two respects. In the first place, except in the case of a small number of instincts, the stimuli to which an immature human being is subject are not sufficiently definite to call out, in the beginning, specific responses. There is always a great deal of superfluous energy aroused. This energy may be wasted, going aside from the point; it may also go against the successful performance of an act. It does harm by getting in the way. Compare the behavior of a beginner in riding a bicycle with that of the expert. There is little axis of direction in the energies put forth; they are largely dispersive and centrifugal. Direction involves a focusing and fixating of action in order that it may be truly a response, and this requires an elimination of unnecessary and confusing movements.\n\nIn the second place, although no activity can be produced in which the person does not cooperate to some extent, yet a response may be of a kind which does not fit into the sequence and continuity of action. A person boxing may dodge a particular blow successfully, but in such a way as to expose himself the next instant to a still harder blow. Adequate control means that the successive acts are brought into a continuous order; each act not only meets its immediate stimulus but helps the acts which follow.\n\nIn short, direction is both simultaneous and successive. At a given time, it requires that, from all the tendencies that are partially called out, those be selected which center energy upon the point of need. Successively, it requires that each act be balanced with those which precede and come after, so that order of activity is achieved. Focusing and ordering are thus the two aspects of direction, one spatial, the other temporal. The first insures hitting the mark; the second keeps the balance required for further action. Obviously, it is not possible to separate them in practice as we have distinguished them in idea. Activity must be centered at a given time in such a way as to prepare for what comes next. The problem of the immediate response is complicated by one\'s having to be on the lookout for future occurrences.\n\nTwo conclusions emerge from these general statements. On the one hand, purely external direction is impossible. The environment can at most only supply stimuli to call out responses. These responses proceed from tendencies already possessed by the individual. Even when a person is frightened by threats into doing something, the threats work only because the person has an instinct of fear. If he has not, or if, though having it, it is under his own control, the threat has no more influence upon him than light has in causing a person to see who has no eyes.\n\nWhile the customs and rules of adults furnish stimuli which direct as well as evoke the activities of the young, the young, after all, participate in the direction which their actions finally take. In the strict sense, nothing can be forced upon them or into them. To overlook this fact means to distort and pervert human nature. To take into account the contribution made by the existing instincts and habits of those directed is to direct them economically and wisely. Speaking accurately, all direction is but re-direction; it shifts the activities already going on into another channel. Unless one is cognizant of the energies which are already in operation, one\'s attempts at direction will almost surely go amiss.\n\nOn the other hand, the control afforded by the customs and regulations of others may be short-sighted. It may accomplish its immediate effect, but at the expense of throwing the subsequent action of the person out of balance. A threat may, for example, prevent a person from doing something to which he is naturally inclined by arousing fear of disagreeable consequences if he persists. But he may be left in the position which exposes him later on to influences which will lead him to do even worse things. His instincts of cunning and slyness may be aroused, so that things henceforth appeal to him on the side of evasion and trickery more than would otherwise have been the case. Those engaged in directing the actions of others are always in danger of overlooking the importance of the sequential development of those they direct.\n\n2. Modes of Social Direction. Adults are naturally most conscious of directing the conduct of others when they are immediately aiming so to do. As a rule, they have such an aim consciously when they find themselves resisted; when others are doing things they do not wish them to do. But the more permanent and influential modes of control are those which operate from moment to moment continuously without such deliberate intention on our part.\n\n1. When others are not doing what we would like them to or are threatening disobedience, we are most conscious of the need of controlling them and of the influences by which they are controlled. In such cases, our control becomes most direct, and at this point we are most likely to make the mistakes just spoken of. We are even likely to take the influence of superior force for control, forgetting that while we may lead a horse to water we cannot make him drink; and that while we can shut a man up in a penitentiary we cannot make him penitent. In all such cases of immediate action upon others, we need to discriminate between physical results and moral results. A person may be in such a condition that forcible feeding or enforced confinement is necessary for his own good. A child may have to be snatched with roughness away from a fire so that he shall not be burnt. But no improvement of disposition, no educative effect, need follow.\n\nA harsh and commanding tone may be effectual in keeping a child away from the fire, and the same desirable physical effect will follow as if he had been snatched away. But there may be no more obedience of a moral sort in one case than in the other. A man can be prevented from breaking into other persons\' houses by shutting him up, but shutting him up may not alter his disposition to commit burglary. When we confuse a physical with an educative result, we always lose the chance of enlisting the person\'s own participating disposition in getting the result desired, and thereby of developing within him an intrinsic and persisting direction in the right way.\n\nIn general, the occasion for the more conscious acts of control should be limited to acts which are so instinctive or impulsive that the one performing them has no means of foreseeing their outcome. If a person cannot foresee the consequences of his act, and is not capable of understanding what he is told about its outcome by those with more experience, it is impossible for him to guide his act intelligently. In such a state, every act is alike to him. Whatever moves him does move him, and that is all there is to it.\n\nIn some cases, it is well to permit him to experiment, and to discover the consequences for himself in order that he may act intelligently next time under similar circumstances. But some courses of action are too discommoding and obnoxious to others to allow of this course being pursued. Direct disapproval is now resorted to. Shaming, ridicule, disfavor, rebuke, and punishment are used. Or contrary tendencies in the child are appealed to to divert him from his troublesome line of behavior. His sensitiveness to approbation, his hope of winning favor by an agreeable act, are made use of to induce action in another direction.\n\n2. These methods of control are so obvious (because so intentionally employed) that it would hardly be worth while to mention them if it were not that notice may now be taken, by way of contrast, of the other more important and permanent mode of control. This other method resides in the ways in which persons, with whom the immature being is associated, use things; the instrumentalities with which they accomplish their own ends. The very existence of the social medium in which an individual lives, moves, and has his being is the standing effective agency of directing his activity.\n\nThis fact makes it necessary for us to examine in greater detail what is meant by the social environment. We are given to separating from each other the physical and social environments in which we live. The separation is responsible on one hand for an exaggeration of the moral importance of the more direct or personal modes of control of which we have been speaking; and on the other hand for an exaggeration, in current psychology and philosophy, of the intellectual possibilities of contact with a purely physical environment. There is not, in fact, any such thing as the direct influence of one human being on another apart from use of the physical environment as an intermediary. A smile, a frown, a rebuke, a word of warning or encouragement, all involve some physical change. Otherwise, the attitude of one would not get over to alter the attitude of another.\n\nComparatively speaking, such modes of influence may be regarded as personal. The physical medium is reduced to a mere means of personal contact. In contrast with such direct modes of mutual influence, stand associations in common pursuits involving the use of things as means and as measures of results. Even if the mother never told her daughter to help her, or never rebuked her for not helping, the child would be subjected to direction in her activities by the mere fact that she was engaged, along with the parent, in the household life. Imitation, emulation, the need of working together, enforce control.\n\nIf the mother hands the child something needed, the latter must reach the thing in order to get it. Where there is giving there must be taking. The way the child handles the thing after it is got, the use to which it is put, is surely influenced by the fact that the child has watched the mother. When the child sees the parent looking for something, it is as natural for it also to look for the object and to give it over when it finds it, as it was, under other circumstances, to receive it. Multiply such an instance by the thousand details of daily intercourse, and one has a picture of the most permanent and enduring method of giving direction to the activities of the young.\n\nIn saying this, we are only repeating what was said previously about participating in a joint activity as the chief way of forming disposition. We have explicitly added, however, the recognition of the part played in the joint activity by the use of things. The philosophy of learning has been unduly dominated by a false psychology. It is frequently stated that a person learns by merely having the qualities of things impressed upon his mind through the gateway of the senses. Having received a store of sensory impressions, association or some power of mental synthesis is supposed to combine them into ideas—into things with a meaning. An object, stone, orange, tree, chair, is supposed to convey different impressions of color, shape, size, hardness, smell, taste, etc., which aggregated together constitute the characteristic meaning of each thing. But as matter of fact, it is the characteristic use to which the thing is put, because of its specific qualities, which supplies the meaning with which it is identified. A chair is a thing which is put to one use; a table, a thing which is employed for another purpose; an orange is a thing which costs so much, which is grown in warm climes, which is eaten, and when eaten has an agreeable odor and refreshing taste, etc.\n\nThe difference between an adjustment to a physical stimulus and a mental act is that the latter involves response to a thing in its meaning; the former does not. A noise may make me jump without my mind being implicated. When I hear a noise and run and get water and put out a blaze, I respond intelligently; the sound meant fire, and fire meant need of being extinguished. I bump into a stone, and kick it to one side purely physically. I put it to one side for fear some one will stumble upon it, intelligently; I respond to a meaning which the thing has. I am startled by a thunderclap whether I recognize it or not—more likely, if I do not recognize it. But if I say, either out loud or to myself, that is thunder, I respond to the disturbance as a meaning. My behavior has a mental quality. When things have a meaning for us, we mean (intend, propose) what we do: when they do not, we act blindly, unconsciously, unintelligently.\n\nIn both kinds of responsive adjustment, our activities are directed or controlled. But in the merely blind response, direction is also blind. There may be training, but there is no education. Repeated responses to recurrent stimuli may fix a habit of acting in a certain way. All of us have many habits of whose import we are quite unaware, since they were formed without our knowing what we were about. Consequently they possess us, rather than we them. They move us; they control us. Unless we become aware of what they accomplish, and pass judgment upon the worth of the result, we do not control them. A child might be made to bow every time he met a certain person by pressure on his neck muscles, and bowing would finally become automatic. It would not, however, be an act of recognition or deference on his part, till he did it with a certain end in view—as having a certain meaning.\n\nAnd not till he knew what he was about and performed the act for the sake of its meaning could he be said to be \"brought up\" or educated to act in a certain way. To have an idea of a thing is thus not just to get certain sensations from it. It is to be able to respond to the thing in view of its place in an inclusive scheme of action; it is to foresee the drift and probable consequence of the action of the thing upon us and of our action upon it. To have the same ideas about things which others have, to be like-minded with them, and thus to be really members of a social group, is therefore to attach the same meanings to things and to acts which others attach. Otherwise, there is no common understanding, and no community life. But in a shared activity, each person refers what he is doing to what the other is doing and vice-versa. That is, the activity of each is placed in the same inclusive situation. To pull at a rope at which others happen to be pulling is not a shared or conjoint activity, unless the pulling is done with knowledge that others are pulling and for the sake of either helping or hindering what they are doing.\n\nA pin may pass in the course of its manufacture through the hands of many persons. But each may do his part without knowledge of what others do or without any reference to what they do; each may operate simply for the sake of a separate result—his own pay. There is, in this case, no common consequence to which the several acts are referred, and hence no genuine intercourse or association, in spite of juxtaposition, and in spite of the fact that their respective doings contribute to a single outcome. But if each views the consequences of his own acts as having a bearing upon what others are doing and takes into account the consequences of their behavior upon himself, then there is a common mind; a common intent in behavior. There is an understanding set up between the different contributors; and this common understanding controls the action of each.\n\nSuppose that conditions were so arranged that one person automatically caught a ball and then threw it to another person who caught and automatically returned it; and that each so acted without knowing where the ball came from or went to. Clearly, such action would be without point or meaning. It might be physically controlled, but it would not be socially directed. But suppose that each becomes aware of what the other is doing, and becomes interested in the other\'s action and thereby interested in what he is doing himself as connected with the action of the other. The behavior of each would then be intelligent; and socially intelligent and guided. Take one more example of a less imaginary kind. An infant is hungry, and cries while food is prepared in his presence. If he does not connect his own state with what others are doing, nor what they are doing with his own satisfaction, he simply reacts with increasing impatience to his own increasing discomfort. He is physically controlled by his own organic state.\n\nBut when he makes a back and forth reference, his whole attitude changes. He takes an interest, as we say; he takes note and watches what others are doing. He no longer reacts just to his own hunger, but behaves in the light of what others are doing for its prospective satisfaction. In that way, he also no longer just gives way to hunger without knowing it, but he notes, or recognizes, or identifies his own state. It becomes an object for him. His attitude toward it becomes in some degree intelligent. And in such noting of the meaning of the actions of others and of his own state, he is socially directed.\n\nIt will be recalled that our main proposition had two sides. One of them has now been dealt with: namely, that physical things do not influence mind (or form ideas and beliefs) except as they are implicated in action for prospective consequences. The other point is persons modify one another\'s dispositions only through the special use they make of physical conditions. Consider first the case of so-called expressive movements to which others are sensitive; blushing, smiling, frowning, clinching of fists, natural gestures of all kinds. In themselves, these are not expressive. They are organic parts of a person\'s attitude.\n\nOne does not blush to show modesty or embarrassment to others, but because the capillary circulation alters in response to stimuli. But others use the blush, or a slightly perceptible tightening of the muscles of a person with whom they are associated, as a sign of the state in which that person finds himself, and as an indication of what course to pursue. The frown signifies an imminent rebuke for which one must prepare, or an uncertainty and hesitation which one must, if possible, remove by saying or doing something to restore confidence. A man at some distance is waving his arms wildly. One has only to preserve an attitude of detached indifference, and the motions of the other person will be on the level of any remote physical change which we happen to note. If we have no concern or interest, the waving of the arms is as meaningless to us as the gyrations of the arms of a windmill. But if interest is aroused, we begin to participate.\n\nWe refer his action to something we are doing ourselves or that we should do. We have to judge the meaning of his act in order to decide what to do. Is he beckoning for help? Is he warning us of an explosion to be set off, against which we should guard ourselves? In one case, his action means to run toward him; in the other case, to run away. In any case, it is the change he effects in the physical environment which is a sign to us of how we should conduct ourselves. Our action is socially controlled because we endeavor to refer what we are to do to the same situation in which he is acting.\n\nLanguage is, as we have already seen (ante, p. 15) a case of this joint reference of our own action and that of another to a common situation. Hence its unrivaled significance as a means of social direction. But language would not be this efficacious instrument were it not that it takes place upon a background of coarser and more tangible use of physical means to accomplish results. A child sees persons with whom he lives using chairs, hats, tables, spades, saws, plows, horses, money in certain ways. If he has any share at all in what they are doing, he is led thereby to use things in the same way, or to use other things in a way which will fit in.\n\nIf a chair is drawn up to a table, it is a sign that he is to sit in it; if a person extends his right hand, he is to extend his; and so on in a never ending stream of detail. The prevailing habits of using the products of human art and the raw materials of nature constitute by all odds the deepest and most pervasive mode of social control. When children go to school, they already have \"minds\"—they have knowledge and dispositions of judgment which may be appealed to through the use of language. But these \"minds\" are the organized habits of intelligent response which they have previously required by putting things to use in connection with the way other persons use things. The control is inescapable; it saturates disposition. The net outcome of the discussion is that the fundamental means of control is not personal but intellectual.\n\nIt is not \"moral\" in the sense that a person is moved by direct personal appeal from others, important as is this method at critical junctures. It consists in the habits of understanding, which are set up in using objects in correspondence with others, whether by way of cooperation and assistance or rivalry and competition. Mind as a concrete thing is precisely the power to understand things in terms of the use made of them; a socialized mind is the power to understand them in terms of the use to which they are turned in joint or shared situations. And mind in this sense is the method of social control.\n\n3. Imitation and Social Psychology. We have already noted the defects of a psychology of learning which places the individual mind naked, as it were, in contact with physical objects, and which believes that knowledge, ideas, and beliefs accrue from their interaction. Only comparatively recently has the predominating influence of association with fellow beings in the formation of mental and moral disposition been perceived. Even now it is usually treated as a kind of adjunct to an alleged method of learning by direct contact with things, and as merely supplementing knowledge of the physical world with knowledge of persons. The purport of our discussion is that such a view makes an absurd and impossible separation between persons and things. Interaction with things may form habits of external adjustment.\n\nBut it leads to activity having a meaning and conscious intent only when things are used to produce a result. And the only way one person can modify the mind of another is by using physical conditions, crude or artificial, so as to evoke some answering activity from him. Such are our two main conclusions. It is desirable to amplify and enforce them by placing them in contrast with the theory which uses a psychology of supposed direct relationships of human beings to one another as an adjunct to the psychology of the supposed direct relation of an individual to physical objects. In substance, this so-called social psychology has been built upon the notion of imitation. Consequently, we shall discuss the nature and role of imitation in the formation of mental disposition.\n\nAccording to this theory, social control of individuals rests upon the instinctive tendency of individuals to imitate or copy the actions of others. The latter serve as models. The imitative instinct is so strong that the young devote themselves to conforming to the patterns set by others and reproducing them in their own scheme of behavior. According to our theory, what is here called imitation is a misleading name for partaking with others in a use of things which leads to consequences of common interest. The basic error in the current notion of imitation is that it puts the cart before the horse. It takes an effect for the cause of the effect.\n\nThere can be no doubt that individuals in forming a social group are like-minded; they understand one another. They tend to act with the same controlling ideas, beliefs, and intentions, given similar circumstances. Looked at from without, they might be said to be engaged in \"imitating\" one another. In the sense that they are doing much the same sort of thing in much the same sort of way, this would be true enough. But \"imitation\" throws no light upon why they so act; it repeats the fact as an explanation of itself. It is an explanation of the same order as the famous saying that opium puts men to sleep because of its dormitive power.\n\nObjective likeness of acts and the mental satisfaction found in being in conformity with others are baptized by the name imitation. This social fact is then taken for a psychological force, which produced the likeness. A considerable portion of what is called imitation is simply the fact that persons being alike in structure respond in the same way to like stimuli. Quite independently of imitation, men on being insulted get angry and attack the insulter. This statement may be met by citing the undoubted fact that response to an insult takes place in different ways in groups having different customs. In one group, it may be met by recourse to fisticuffs, in another by a challenge to a duel, in a third by an exhibition of contemptuous disregard.\n\nThis happens, so it is said, because the model set for imitation is different. But there is no need to appeal to imitation. The mere fact that customs are different means that the actual stimuli to behavior are different. Conscious instruction plays a part; prior approvals and disapprovals have a large influence. Still more effective is the fact that unless an individual acts in the way current in his group, he is literally out of it. He can associate with others on intimate and equal terms only by behaving in the way in which they behave. The pressure that comes from the fact that one is let into the group action by acting in one way and shut out by acting in another way is unremitting. What is called the effect of imitation is mainly the product of conscious instruction and of the selective influence exercised by the unconscious confirmations and ratifications of those with whom one associates.\n\nSuppose that some one rolls a ball to a child; he catches it and rolls it back, and the game goes on. Here the stimulus is not just the sight of the ball, or the sight of the other rolling it. It is the situation—the game which is playing. The response is not merely rolling the ball back; it is rolling it back so that the other one may catch and return it,—that the game may continue. The \"pattern\" or model is not the action of the other person. The whole situation requires that each should adapt his action in view of what the other person has done and is to do. Imitation may come in but its role is subordinate. The child has an interest on his own account; he wants to keep it going. He may then note how the other person catches and holds the ball in order to improve his own acts. He imitates the means of doing, not the end or thing to be done. And he imitates the means because he wishes, on his own behalf, as part of his own initiative, to take an effective part in the game.\n\nOne has only to consider how completely the child is dependent from his earliest days for successful execution of his purposes upon fitting his acts into those of others to see what a premium is put upon behaving as others behave, and of developing an understanding of them in order that he may so behave. The pressure for likemindedness in action from this source is so great that it is quite superfluous to appeal to imitation. As matter of fact, imitation of ends, as distinct from imitation of means which help to reach ends, is a superficial and transitory affair which leaves little effect upon disposition.\n\nIdiots are especially apt at this kind of imitation; it affects outward acts but not the meaning of their performance. When we find children engaging in this sort of mimicry, instead of encouraging them (as we would do if it were an important means of social control) we are more likely to rebuke them as apes, monkeys, parrots, or copy cats. Imitation of means of accomplishment is, on the other hand, an intelligent act. It involves close observation, and judicious selection of what will enable one to do better something which he already is trying to do. Used for a purpose, the imitative instinct may, like any other instinct, become a factor in the development of effective action.\n\nThis excursus should, accordingly, have the effect of reinforcing the conclusion that genuine social control means the formation of a certain mental disposition; a way of understanding objects, events, and acts which enables one to participate effectively in associated activities. Only the friction engendered by meeting resistance from others leads to the view that it takes place by forcing a line of action contrary to natural inclinations. Only failure to take account of the situations in which persons are mutually concerned (or interested in acting responsively to one another) leads to treating imitation as the chief agent in promoting social control.\n\n4. Some Applications to Education. Why does a savage group perpetuate savagery, and a civilized group civilization? Doubtless the first answer to occur to mind is because savages are savages; being of low-grade intelligence and perhaps defective moral sense. But careful study has made it doubtful whether their native capacities are appreciably inferior to those of civilized man. It has made it certain that native differences are not sufficient to account for the difference in culture. In a sense the mind of savage peoples is an effect, rather than a cause, of their backward institutions. Their social activities are such as to restrict their objects of attention and interest, and hence to limit the stimuli to mental development. Even as regards the objects that come within the scope of attention, primitive social customs tend to arrest observation and imagination upon qualities which do not fructify in the mind.\n\nLack of control of natural forces means that a scant number of natural objects enter into associated behavior. Only a small number of natural resources are utilized and they are not worked for what they are worth. The advance of civilization means that a larger number of natural forces and objects have been transformed into instrumentalities of action, into means for securing ends. We start not so much with superior capacities as with superior stimuli for evocation and direction of our capacities. The savage deals largely with crude stimuli; we have weighted stimuli. Prior human efforts have made over natural conditions. As they originally existed they were indifferent to human endeavors.\n\nEvery domesticated plant and animal, every tool, every utensil, every appliance, every manufactured article, every esthetic decoration, every work of art means a transformation of conditions once hostile or indifferent to characteristic human activities into friendly and favoring conditions. Because the activities of children today are controlled by these selected and charged stimuli, children are able to traverse in a short lifetime what the race has needed slow, tortured ages to attain. The dice have been loaded by all the successes which have preceded.\n\nStimuli conducive to economical and effective response, such as our system of roads and means of transportation, our ready command of heat, light, and electricity, our ready-made machines and apparatus for every purpose, do not, by themselves or in their aggregate, constitute a civilization. But the uses to which they are put are civilization, and without the things the uses would be impossible. Time otherwise necessarily devoted to wresting a livelihood from a grudging environment and securing a precarious protection against its inclemencies is freed. A body of knowledge is transmitted, the legitimacy of which is guaranteed by the fact that the physical equipment in which it is incarnated leads to results that square with the other facts of nature. Thus these appliances of art supply a protection, perhaps our chief protection, against a recrudescence of these superstitious beliefs, those fanciful myths and infertile imaginings about nature in which so much of the best intellectual power of the past has been spent. If we add one other factor, namely, that such appliances be not only used, but used in the interests of a truly shared or associated life, then the appliances become the positive resources of civilization.\n\nIf Greece, with a scant tithe of our material resources, achieved a worthy and noble intellectual and artistic career, it is because Greece operated for social ends such resources as it had. But whatever the situation, whether one of barbarism or civilization, whether one of stinted control of physical forces, or of partial enslavement to a mechanism not yet made tributary to a shared experience, things as they enter into action furnish the educative conditions of daily life and direct the formation of mental and moral disposition.\n\nIntentional education signifies, as we have already seen, a specially selected environment, the selection being made on the basis of materials and method specifically promoting growth in the desired direction. Since language represents the physical conditions that have been subjected to the maximum transformation in the interests of social life—physical things which have lost their original quality in becoming social tools—it is appropriate that language should play a large part compared with other appliances. By it we are led to share vicariously in past human experience, thus widening and enriching the experience of the present. We are enabled, symbolically and imaginatively, to anticipate situations. In countless ways, language condenses meanings that record social outcomes and presage social outlooks. So significant is it of a liberal share in what is worth while in life that unlettered and uneducated have become almost synonymous.\n\nThe emphasis in school upon this particular tool has, however, its dangers—dangers which are not theoretical but exhibited in practice. Why is it, in spite of the fact that teaching by pouring in, learning by a passive absorption, are universally condemned, that they are still so entrenched in practice? That education is not an affair of \"telling\" and being told, but an active and constructive process, is a principle almost as generally violated in practice as conceded in theory. Is not this deplorable situation due to the fact that the doctrine is itself merely told? It is preached; it is lectured; it is written about.\n\nBut its enactment into practice requires that the school environment be equipped with agencies for doing, with tools and physical materials, to an extent rarely attained. It requires that methods of instruction and administration be modified to allow and to secure direct and continuous occupations with things. Not that the use of language as an educational resource should lessen; but that its use should be more vital and fruitful by having its normal connection with shared activities. \"These things ought ye to have done, and not to have left the others undone.\" And for the school \"these things\" mean equipment with the instrumentalities of cooperative or joint activity.\n\nFor when the schools depart from the educational conditions effective in the out-of-school environment, they necessarily substitute a bookish, a pseudo-intellectual spirit for a social spirit. Children doubtless go to school to learn, but it has yet to be proved that learning occurs most adequately when it is made a separate conscious business. When treating it as a business of this sort tends to preclude the social sense which comes from sharing in an activity of common concern and value, the effort at isolated intellectual learning contradicts its own aim.\n\nWe may secure motor activity and sensory excitation by keeping an individual by himself, but we cannot thereby get him to understand the meaning which things have in the life of which he is a part. We may secure technical specialized ability in algebra, Latin, or botany, but not the kind of intelligence which directs ability to useful ends. Only by engaging in a joint activity, where one person\'s use of material and tools is consciously referred to the use other persons are making of their capacities and appliances, is a social direction of disposition attained.\n<h2>Summary - Education as Direction</h2>\nThe natural or native impulses of the young do not agree with the life-customs of the group into which they are born. Consequently they have to be directed or guided. This control is not the same thing as physical compulsion; it consists in centering the impulses acting at any one time upon some specific end and in introducing an order of continuity into the sequence of acts. The action of others is always influenced by deciding what stimuli shall call out their actions. But in some cases as in commands, prohibitions, approvals, and disapprovals, the stimuli proceed from persons with a direct view to influencing action. Since in such cases we are most conscious of controlling the action of others, we are likely to exaggerate the importance of this sort of control at the expense of a more permanent and effective method.\n\nThe basic control resides in the nature of the situations in which the young take part. In social situations the young have to refer their way of acting to what others are doing and make it fit in. This directs their action to a common result, and gives an understanding common to the participants. For all mean the same thing, even when performing different acts. This common understanding of the means and ends of action is the essence of social control. It is indirect, or emotional and intellectual, not direct or personal. Moreover it is intrinsic to the disposition of the person, not external and coercive. To achieve this internal control through identity of interest and understanding is the business of education. While books and conversation can do much, these agencies are usually relied upon too exclusively. Schools require for their full efficiency more opportunity for conjoint activities in which those instructed take part, so that they may acquire a social sense of their own powers and of the materials and appliances used.', 'Education as Direction', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13148-autosave-v1', '', '', '2023-02-17 19:54:06', '2023-02-17 19:54:06', '', 13148, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13150', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(13151, 1, '2023-02-17 19:56:27', '2023-02-17 19:56:27', '<h3>1. The Environment as Directive.</h3>\r\nWe now pass to one of the special forms which the general function of education assumes: namely, that of direction, control, or guidance. Of these three words, direction, control, and guidance, the last best conveys the idea of assisting through cooperation the natural capacities of the individuals guided; control conveys rather the notion of an energy brought to bear from without and meeting some resistance from the one controlled; direction is a more neutral term and suggests the fact that the active tendencies of those directed are led in a certain continuous course, instead of dispersing aimlessly. Direction expresses the basic function, which tends at one extreme to become a guiding assistance and at another, a regulation or ruling.\r\n\r\nBut in any case, we must carefully avoid a meaning sometimes read into the term \"control.\" It is sometimes assumed, explicitly or unconsciously, that an individual\'s tendencies are naturally purely individualistic or egoistic, and thus antisocial. Control then denotes the process by which he is brought to subordinate his natural impulses to public or common ends. Since, by conception, his own nature is quite alien to this process and opposes it rather than helps it, control has in this view a flavor of coercion or compulsion about it. Systems of government and theories of the state have been built upon this notion, and it has seriously affected educational ideas and practices. But there is no ground for any such view. Individuals are certainly interested, at times, in having their own way, and their own way may go contrary to the ways of others. But they are also interested, and chiefly interested upon the whole, in entering into the activities of others and taking part in conjoint and cooperative doings. Otherwise, no such thing as a community would be possible. And there would not even be any one interested in furnishing the policeman to keep a semblance of harmony unless he thought that thereby he could gain some personal advantage. Control, in truth, means only an emphatic form of direction of powers, and covers the regulation gained by an individual through his own efforts quite as much as that brought about when others take the lead.\r\n\r\nIn general, every stimulus directs activity. It does not simply excite it or stir it up, but directs it toward an object. Put the other way around, a response is not just a re-action, a protest, as it were, against being disturbed; it is, as the word indicates, an answer. It meets the stimulus, and corresponds with it. There is an adaptation of the stimulus and response to each other. A light is the stimulus to the eye to see something, and the business of the eye is to see. If the eyes are open and there is light, seeing occurs; the stimulus is but a condition of the fulfillment of the proper function of the organ, not an outside interruption. To some extent, then, all direction or control is a guiding of activity to its own end; it is an assistance in doing fully what some organ is already tending to do.\r\n\r\nThis general statement needs, however, to be qualified in two respects. In the first place, except in the case of a small number of instincts, the stimuli to which an immature human being is subject are not sufficiently definite to call out, in the beginning, specific responses. There is always a great deal of superfluous energy aroused. This energy may be wasted, going aside from the point; it may also go against the successful performance of an act. It does harm by getting in the way. Compare the behavior of a beginner in riding a bicycle with that of the expert. There is little axis of direction in the energies put forth; they are largely dispersive and centrifugal. Direction involves a focusing and fixating of action in order that it may be truly a response, and this requires an elimination of unnecessary and confusing movements.\r\n\r\nIn the second place, although no activity can be produced in which the person does not cooperate to some extent, yet a response may be of a kind which does not fit into the sequence and continuity of action. A person boxing may dodge a particular blow successfully, but in such a way as to expose himself the next instant to a still harder blow. Adequate control means that the successive acts are brought into a continuous order; each act not only meets its immediate stimulus but helps the acts which follow.\r\n\r\nIn short, direction is both simultaneous and successive. At a given time, it requires that, from all the tendencies that are partially called out, those be selected which center energy upon the point of need. Successively, it requires that each act be balanced with those which precede and come after, so that order of activity is achieved. Focusing and ordering are thus the two aspects of direction, one spatial, the other temporal. The first insures hitting the mark; the second keeps the balance required for further action. Obviously, it is not possible to separate them in practice as we have distinguished them in idea. Activity must be centered at a given time in such a way as to prepare for what comes next. The problem of the immediate response is complicated by one\'s having to be on the lookout for future occurrences.\r\n\r\nTwo conclusions emerge from these general statements. On the one hand, purely external direction is impossible. The environment can at most only supply stimuli to call out responses. These responses proceed from tendencies already possessed by the individual. Even when a person is frightened by threats into doing something, the threats work only because the person has an instinct of fear. If he has not, or if, though having it, it is under his own control, the threat has no more influence upon him than light has in causing a person to see who has no eyes.\r\n\r\nWhile the customs and rules of adults furnish stimuli which direct as well as evoke the activities of the young, the young, after all, participate in the direction which their actions finally take. In the strict sense, nothing can be forced upon them or into them. To overlook this fact means to distort and pervert human nature. To take into account the contribution made by the existing instincts and habits of those directed is to direct them economically and wisely. Speaking accurately, all direction is but re-direction; it shifts the activities already going on into another channel. Unless one is cognizant of the energies which are already in operation, one\'s attempts at direction will almost surely go amiss.\r\n\r\nOn the other hand, the control afforded by the customs and regulations of others may be short-sighted. It may accomplish its immediate effect, but at the expense of throwing the subsequent action of the person out of balance. A threat may, for example, prevent a person from doing something to which he is naturally inclined by arousing fear of disagreeable consequences if he persists. But he may be left in the position which exposes him later on to influences which will lead him to do even worse things. His instincts of cunning and slyness may be aroused, so that things henceforth appeal to him on the side of evasion and trickery more than would otherwise have been the case. Those engaged in directing the actions of others are always in danger of overlooking the importance of the sequential development of those they direct.\r\n\r\n2. Modes of Social Direction. Adults are naturally most conscious of directing the conduct of others when they are immediately aiming so to do. As a rule, they have such an aim consciously when they find themselves resisted; when others are doing things they do not wish them to do. But the more permanent and influential modes of control are those which operate from moment to moment continuously without such deliberate intention on our part.\r\n\r\n1. When others are not doing what we would like them to or are threatening disobedience, we are most conscious of the need of controlling them and of the influences by which they are controlled. In such cases, our control becomes most direct, and at this point we are most likely to make the mistakes just spoken of. We are even likely to take the influence of superior force for control, forgetting that while we may lead a horse to water we cannot make him drink; and that while we can shut a man up in a penitentiary we cannot make him penitent. In all such cases of immediate action upon others, we need to discriminate between physical results and moral results. A person may be in such a condition that forcible feeding or enforced confinement is necessary for his own good. A child may have to be snatched with roughness away from a fire so that he shall not be burnt. But no improvement of disposition, no educative effect, need follow.\r\n\r\nA harsh and commanding tone may be effectual in keeping a child away from the fire, and the same desirable physical effect will follow as if he had been snatched away. But there may be no more obedience of a moral sort in one case than in the other. A man can be prevented from breaking into other persons\' houses by shutting him up, but shutting him up may not alter his disposition to commit burglary. When we confuse a physical with an educative result, we always lose the chance of enlisting the person\'s own participating disposition in getting the result desired, and thereby of developing within him an intrinsic and persisting direction in the right way.\r\n\r\nIn general, the occasion for the more conscious acts of control should be limited to acts which are so instinctive or impulsive that the one performing them has no means of foreseeing their outcome. If a person cannot foresee the consequences of his act, and is not capable of understanding what he is told about its outcome by those with more experience, it is impossible for him to guide his act intelligently. In such a state, every act is alike to him. Whatever moves him does move him, and that is all there is to it.\r\n\r\nIn some cases, it is well to permit him to experiment, and to discover the consequences for himself in order that he may act intelligently next time under similar circumstances. But some courses of action are too discommoding and obnoxious to others to allow of this course being pursued. Direct disapproval is now resorted to. Shaming, ridicule, disfavor, rebuke, and punishment are used. Or contrary tendencies in the child are appealed to to divert him from his troublesome line of behavior. His sensitiveness to approbation, his hope of winning favor by an agreeable act, are made use of to induce action in another direction.\r\n\r\n2. These methods of control are so obvious (because so intentionally employed) that it would hardly be worth while to mention them if it were not that notice may now be taken, by way of contrast, of the other more important and permanent mode of control. This other method resides in the ways in which persons, with whom the immature being is associated, use things; the instrumentalities with which they accomplish their own ends. The very existence of the social medium in which an individual lives, moves, and has his being is the standing effective agency of directing his activity.\r\n\r\nThis fact makes it necessary for us to examine in greater detail what is meant by the social environment. We are given to separating from each other the physical and social environments in which we live. The separation is responsible on one hand for an exaggeration of the moral importance of the more direct or personal modes of control of which we have been speaking; and on the other hand for an exaggeration, in current psychology and philosophy, of the intellectual possibilities of contact with a purely physical environment. There is not, in fact, any such thing as the direct influence of one human being on another apart from use of the physical environment as an intermediary. A smile, a frown, a rebuke, a word of warning or encouragement, all involve some physical change. Otherwise, the attitude of one would not get over to alter the attitude of another.\r\n\r\nComparatively speaking, such modes of influence may be regarded as personal. The physical medium is reduced to a mere means of personal contact. In contrast with such direct modes of mutual influence, stand associations in common pursuits involving the use of things as means and as measures of results. Even if the mother never told her daughter to help her, or never rebuked her for not helping, the child would be subjected to direction in her activities by the mere fact that she was engaged, along with the parent, in the household life. Imitation, emulation, the need of working together, enforce control.\r\n\r\nIf the mother hands the child something needed, the latter must reach the thing in order to get it. Where there is giving there must be taking. The way the child handles the thing after it is got, the use to which it is put, is surely influenced by the fact that the child has watched the mother. When the child sees the parent looking for something, it is as natural for it also to look for the object and to give it over when it finds it, as it was, under other circumstances, to receive it. Multiply such an instance by the thousand details of daily intercourse, and one has a picture of the most permanent and enduring method of giving direction to the activities of the young.\r\n\r\nIn saying this, we are only repeating what was said previously about participating in a joint activity as the chief way of forming disposition. We have explicitly added, however, the recognition of the part played in the joint activity by the use of things. The philosophy of learning has been unduly dominated by a false psychology. It is frequently stated that a person learns by merely having the qualities of things impressed upon his mind through the gateway of the senses. Having received a store of sensory impressions, association or some power of mental synthesis is supposed to combine them into ideas—into things with a meaning. An object, stone, orange, tree, chair, is supposed to convey different impressions of color, shape, size, hardness, smell, taste, etc., which aggregated together constitute the characteristic meaning of each thing. But as matter of fact, it is the characteristic use to which the thing is put, because of its specific qualities, which supplies the meaning with which it is identified. A chair is a thing which is put to one use; a table, a thing which is employed for another purpose; an orange is a thing which costs so much, which is grown in warm climes, which is eaten, and when eaten has an agreeable odor and refreshing taste, etc.\r\n\r\nThe difference between an adjustment to a physical stimulus and a mental act is that the latter involves response to a thing in its meaning; the former does not. A noise may make me jump without my mind being implicated. When I hear a noise and run and get water and put out a blaze, I respond intelligently; the sound meant fire, and fire meant need of being extinguished. I bump into a stone, and kick it to one side purely physically. I put it to one side for fear some one will stumble upon it, intelligently; I respond to a meaning which the thing has. I am startled by a thunderclap whether I recognize it or not—more likely, if I do not recognize it. But if I say, either out loud or to myself, that is thunder, I respond to the disturbance as a meaning. My behavior has a mental quality. When things have a meaning for us, we mean (intend, propose) what we do: when they do not, we act blindly, unconsciously, unintelligently.\r\n\r\nIn both kinds of responsive adjustment, our activities are directed or controlled. But in the merely blind response, direction is also blind. There may be training, but there is no education. Repeated responses to recurrent stimuli may fix a habit of acting in a certain way. All of us have many habits of whose import we are quite unaware, since they were formed without our knowing what we were about. Consequently they possess us, rather than we them. They move us; they control us. Unless we become aware of what they accomplish, and pass judgment upon the worth of the result, we do not control them. A child might be made to bow every time he met a certain person by pressure on his neck muscles, and bowing would finally become automatic. It would not, however, be an act of recognition or deference on his part, till he did it with a certain end in view—as having a certain meaning.\r\n\r\nAnd not till he knew what he was about and performed the act for the sake of its meaning could he be said to be \"brought up\" or educated to act in a certain way. To have an idea of a thing is thus not just to get certain sensations from it. It is to be able to respond to the thing in view of its place in an inclusive scheme of action; it is to foresee the drift and probable consequence of the action of the thing upon us and of our action upon it. To have the same ideas about things which others have, to be like-minded with them, and thus to be really members of a social group, is therefore to attach the same meanings to things and to acts which others attach. Otherwise, there is no common understanding, and no community life. But in a shared activity, each person refers what he is doing to what the other is doing and vice-versa. That is, the activity of each is placed in the same inclusive situation. To pull at a rope at which others happen to be pulling is not a shared or conjoint activity, unless the pulling is done with knowledge that others are pulling and for the sake of either helping or hindering what they are doing.\r\n\r\nA pin may pass in the course of its manufacture through the hands of many persons. But each may do his part without knowledge of what others do or without any reference to what they do; each may operate simply for the sake of a separate result—his own pay. There is, in this case, no common consequence to which the several acts are referred, and hence no genuine intercourse or association, in spite of juxtaposition, and in spite of the fact that their respective doings contribute to a single outcome. But if each views the consequences of his own acts as having a bearing upon what others are doing and takes into account the consequences of their behavior upon himself, then there is a common mind; a common intent in behavior. There is an understanding set up between the different contributors; and this common understanding controls the action of each.\r\n\r\nSuppose that conditions were so arranged that one person automatically caught a ball and then threw it to another person who caught and automatically returned it; and that each so acted without knowing where the ball came from or went to. Clearly, such action would be without point or meaning. It might be physically controlled, but it would not be socially directed. But suppose that each becomes aware of what the other is doing, and becomes interested in the other\'s action and thereby interested in what he is doing himself as connected with the action of the other. The behavior of each would then be intelligent; and socially intelligent and guided. Take one more example of a less imaginary kind. An infant is hungry, and cries while food is prepared in his presence. If he does not connect his own state with what others are doing, nor what they are doing with his own satisfaction, he simply reacts with increasing impatience to his own increasing discomfort. He is physically controlled by his own organic state.\r\n\r\nBut when he makes a back and forth reference, his whole attitude changes. He takes an interest, as we say; he takes note and watches what others are doing. He no longer reacts just to his own hunger, but behaves in the light of what others are doing for its prospective satisfaction. In that way, he also no longer just gives way to hunger without knowing it, but he notes, or recognizes, or identifies his own state. It becomes an object for him. His attitude toward it becomes in some degree intelligent. And in such noting of the meaning of the actions of others and of his own state, he is socially directed.\r\n\r\nIt will be recalled that our main proposition had two sides. One of them has now been dealt with: namely, that physical things do not influence mind (or form ideas and beliefs) except as they are implicated in action for prospective consequences. The other point is persons modify one another\'s dispositions only through the special use they make of physical conditions. Consider first the case of so-called expressive movements to which others are sensitive; blushing, smiling, frowning, clinching of fists, natural gestures of all kinds. In themselves, these are not expressive. They are organic parts of a person\'s attitude.\r\n\r\nOne does not blush to show modesty or embarrassment to others, but because the capillary circulation alters in response to stimuli. But others use the blush, or a slightly perceptible tightening of the muscles of a person with whom they are associated, as a sign of the state in which that person finds himself, and as an indication of what course to pursue. The frown signifies an imminent rebuke for which one must prepare, or an uncertainty and hesitation which one must, if possible, remove by saying or doing something to restore confidence. A man at some distance is waving his arms wildly. One has only to preserve an attitude of detached indifference, and the motions of the other person will be on the level of any remote physical change which we happen to note. If we have no concern or interest, the waving of the arms is as meaningless to us as the gyrations of the arms of a windmill. But if interest is aroused, we begin to participate.\r\n\r\nWe refer his action to something we are doing ourselves or that we should do. We have to judge the meaning of his act in order to decide what to do. Is he beckoning for help? Is he warning us of an explosion to be set off, against which we should guard ourselves? In one case, his action means to run toward him; in the other case, to run away. In any case, it is the change he effects in the physical environment which is a sign to us of how we should conduct ourselves. Our action is socially controlled because we endeavor to refer what we are to do to the same situation in which he is acting.\r\n\r\nLanguage is, as we have already seen (ante, p. 15) a case of this joint reference of our own action and that of another to a common situation. Hence its unrivaled significance as a means of social direction. But language would not be this efficacious instrument were it not that it takes place upon a background of coarser and more tangible use of physical means to accomplish results. A child sees persons with whom he lives using chairs, hats, tables, spades, saws, plows, horses, money in certain ways. If he has any share at all in what they are doing, he is led thereby to use things in the same way, or to use other things in a way which will fit in.\r\n\r\nIf a chair is drawn up to a table, it is a sign that he is to sit in it; if a person extends his right hand, he is to extend his; and so on in a never ending stream of detail. The prevailing habits of using the products of human art and the raw materials of nature constitute by all odds the deepest and most pervasive mode of social control. When children go to school, they already have \"minds\"—they have knowledge and dispositions of judgment which may be appealed to through the use of language. But these \"minds\" are the organized habits of intelligent response which they have previously required by putting things to use in connection with the way other persons use things. The control is inescapable; it saturates disposition. The net outcome of the discussion is that the fundamental means of control is not personal but intellectual.\r\n\r\nIt is not \"moral\" in the sense that a person is moved by direct personal appeal from others, important as is this method at critical junctures. It consists in the habits of understanding, which are set up in using objects in correspondence with others, whether by way of cooperation and assistance or rivalry and competition. Mind as a concrete thing is precisely the power to understand things in terms of the use made of them; a socialized mind is the power to understand them in terms of the use to which they are turned in joint or shared situations. And mind in this sense is the method of social control.\r\n\r\n3. Imitation and Social Psychology. We have already noted the defects of a psychology of learning which places the individual mind naked, as it were, in contact with physical objects, and which believes that knowledge, ideas, and beliefs accrue from their interaction. Only comparatively recently has the predominating influence of association with fellow beings in the formation of mental and moral disposition been perceived. Even now it is usually treated as a kind of adjunct to an alleged method of learning by direct contact with things, and as merely supplementing knowledge of the physical world with knowledge of persons. The purport of our discussion is that such a view makes an absurd and impossible separation between persons and things. Interaction with things may form habits of external adjustment.\r\n\r\nBut it leads to activity having a meaning and conscious intent only when things are used to produce a result. And the only way one person can modify the mind of another is by using physical conditions, crude or artificial, so as to evoke some answering activity from him. Such are our two main conclusions. It is desirable to amplify and enforce them by placing them in contrast with the theory which uses a psychology of supposed direct relationships of human beings to one another as an adjunct to the psychology of the supposed direct relation of an individual to physical objects. In substance, this so-called social psychology has been built upon the notion of imitation. Consequently, we shall discuss the nature and role of imitation in the formation of mental disposition.\r\n\r\nAccording to this theory, social control of individuals rests upon the instinctive tendency of individuals to imitate or copy the actions of others. The latter serve as models. The imitative instinct is so strong that the young devote themselves to conforming to the patterns set by others and reproducing them in their own scheme of behavior. According to our theory, what is here called imitation is a misleading name for partaking with others in a use of things which leads to consequences of common interest. The basic error in the current notion of imitation is that it puts the cart before the horse. It takes an effect for the cause of the effect.\r\n\r\nThere can be no doubt that individuals in forming a social group are like-minded; they understand one another. They tend to act with the same controlling ideas, beliefs, and intentions, given similar circumstances. Looked at from without, they might be said to be engaged in \"imitating\" one another. In the sense that they are doing much the same sort of thing in much the same sort of way, this would be true enough. But \"imitation\" throws no light upon why they so act; it repeats the fact as an explanation of itself. It is an explanation of the same order as the famous saying that opium puts men to sleep because of its dormitive power.\r\n\r\nObjective likeness of acts and the mental satisfaction found in being in conformity with others are baptized by the name imitation. This social fact is then taken for a psychological force, which produced the likeness. A considerable portion of what is called imitation is simply the fact that persons being alike in structure respond in the same way to like stimuli. Quite independently of imitation, men on being insulted get angry and attack the insulter. This statement may be met by citing the undoubted fact that response to an insult takes place in different ways in groups having different customs. In one group, it may be met by recourse to fisticuffs, in another by a challenge to a duel, in a third by an exhibition of contemptuous disregard.\r\n\r\nThis happens, so it is said, because the model set for imitation is different. But there is no need to appeal to imitation. The mere fact that customs are different means that the actual stimuli to behavior are different. Conscious instruction plays a part; prior approvals and disapprovals have a large influence. Still more effective is the fact that unless an individual acts in the way current in his group, he is literally out of it. He can associate with others on intimate and equal terms only by behaving in the way in which they behave. The pressure that comes from the fact that one is let into the group action by acting in one way and shut out by acting in another way is unremitting. What is called the effect of imitation is mainly the product of conscious instruction and of the selective influence exercised by the unconscious confirmations and ratifications of those with whom one associates.\r\n\r\nSuppose that some one rolls a ball to a child; he catches it and rolls it back, and the game goes on. Here the stimulus is not just the sight of the ball, or the sight of the other rolling it. It is the situation—the game which is playing. The response is not merely rolling the ball back; it is rolling it back so that the other one may catch and return it,—that the game may continue. The \"pattern\" or model is not the action of the other person. The whole situation requires that each should adapt his action in view of what the other person has done and is to do. Imitation may come in but its role is subordinate. The child has an interest on his own account; he wants to keep it going. He may then note how the other person catches and holds the ball in order to improve his own acts. He imitates the means of doing, not the end or thing to be done. And he imitates the means because he wishes, on his own behalf, as part of his own initiative, to take an effective part in the game.\r\n\r\nOne has only to consider how completely the child is dependent from his earliest days for successful execution of his purposes upon fitting his acts into those of others to see what a premium is put upon behaving as others behave, and of developing an understanding of them in order that he may so behave. The pressure for likemindedness in action from this source is so great that it is quite superfluous to appeal to imitation. As matter of fact, imitation of ends, as distinct from imitation of means which help to reach ends, is a superficial and transitory affair which leaves little effect upon disposition.\r\n\r\nIdiots are especially apt at this kind of imitation; it affects outward acts but not the meaning of their performance. When we find children engaging in this sort of mimicry, instead of encouraging them (as we would do if it were an important means of social control) we are more likely to rebuke them as apes, monkeys, parrots, or copy cats. Imitation of means of accomplishment is, on the other hand, an intelligent act. It involves close observation, and judicious selection of what will enable one to do better something which he already is trying to do. Used for a purpose, the imitative instinct may, like any other instinct, become a factor in the development of effective action.\r\n\r\nThis excursus should, accordingly, have the effect of reinforcing the conclusion that genuine social control means the formation of a certain mental disposition; a way of understanding objects, events, and acts which enables one to participate effectively in associated activities. Only the friction engendered by meeting resistance from others leads to the view that it takes place by forcing a line of action contrary to natural inclinations. Only failure to take account of the situations in which persons are mutually concerned (or interested in acting responsively to one another) leads to treating imitation as the chief agent in promoting social control.\r\n\r\n4. Some Applications to Education. Why does a savage group perpetuate savagery, and a civilized group civilization? Doubtless the first answer to occur to mind is because savages are savages; being of low-grade intelligence and perhaps defective moral sense. But careful study has made it doubtful whether their native capacities are appreciably inferior to those of civilized man. It has made it certain that native differences are not sufficient to account for the difference in culture. In a sense the mind of savage peoples is an effect, rather than a cause, of their backward institutions. Their social activities are such as to restrict their objects of attention and interest, and hence to limit the stimuli to mental development. Even as regards the objects that come within the scope of attention, primitive social customs tend to arrest observation and imagination upon qualities which do not fructify in the mind.\r\n\r\nLack of control of natural forces means that a scant number of natural objects enter into associated behavior. Only a small number of natural resources are utilized and they are not worked for what they are worth. The advance of civilization means that a larger number of natural forces and objects have been transformed into instrumentalities of action, into means for securing ends. We start not so much with superior capacities as with superior stimuli for evocation and direction of our capacities. The savage deals largely with crude stimuli; we have weighted stimuli. Prior human efforts have made over natural conditions. As they originally existed they were indifferent to human endeavors.\r\n\r\nEvery domesticated plant and animal, every tool, every utensil, every appliance, every manufactured article, every esthetic decoration, every work of art means a transformation of conditions once hostile or indifferent to characteristic human activities into friendly and favoring conditions. Because the activities of children today are controlled by these selected and charged stimuli, children are able to traverse in a short lifetime what the race has needed slow, tortured ages to attain. The dice have been loaded by all the successes which have preceded.\r\n\r\nStimuli conducive to economical and effective response, such as our system of roads and means of transportation, our ready command of heat, light, and electricity, our ready-made machines and apparatus for every purpose, do not, by themselves or in their aggregate, constitute a civilization. But the uses to which they are put are civilization, and without the things the uses would be impossible. Time otherwise necessarily devoted to wresting a livelihood from a grudging environment and securing a precarious protection against its inclemencies is freed. A body of knowledge is transmitted, the legitimacy of which is guaranteed by the fact that the physical equipment in which it is incarnated leads to results that square with the other facts of nature. Thus these appliances of art supply a protection, perhaps our chief protection, against a recrudescence of these superstitious beliefs, those fanciful myths and infertile imaginings about nature in which so much of the best intellectual power of the past has been spent. If we add one other factor, namely, that such appliances be not only used, but used in the interests of a truly shared or associated life, then the appliances become the positive resources of civilization.\r\n\r\nIf Greece, with a scant tithe of our material resources, achieved a worthy and noble intellectual and artistic career, it is because Greece operated for social ends such resources as it had. But whatever the situation, whether one of barbarism or civilization, whether one of stinted control of physical forces, or of partial enslavement to a mechanism not yet made tributary to a shared experience, things as they enter into action furnish the educative conditions of daily life and direct the formation of mental and moral disposition.\r\n\r\nIntentional education signifies, as we have already seen, a specially selected environment, the selection being made on the basis of materials and method specifically promoting growth in the desired direction. Since language represents the physical conditions that have been subjected to the maximum transformation in the interests of social life—physical things which have lost their original quality in becoming social tools—it is appropriate that language should play a large part compared with other appliances. By it we are led to share vicariously in past human experience, thus widening and enriching the experience of the present. We are enabled, symbolically and imaginatively, to anticipate situations. In countless ways, language condenses meanings that record social outcomes and presage social outlooks. So significant is it of a liberal share in what is worth while in life that unlettered and uneducated have become almost synonymous.\r\n\r\nThe emphasis in school upon this particular tool has, however, its dangers—dangers which are not theoretical but exhibited in practice. Why is it, in spite of the fact that teaching by pouring in, learning by a passive absorption, are universally condemned, that they are still so entrenched in practice? That education is not an affair of \"telling\" and being told, but an active and constructive process, is a principle almost as generally violated in practice as conceded in theory. Is not this deplorable situation due to the fact that the doctrine is itself merely told? It is preached; it is lectured; it is written about.\r\n\r\nBut its enactment into practice requires that the school environment be equipped with agencies for doing, with tools and physical materials, to an extent rarely attained. It requires that methods of instruction and administration be modified to allow and to secure direct and continuous occupations with things. Not that the use of language as an educational resource should lessen; but that its use should be more vital and fruitful by having its normal connection with shared activities. \"These things ought ye to have done, and not to have left the others undone.\" And for the school \"these things\" mean equipment with the instrumentalities of cooperative or joint activity.\r\n\r\nFor when the schools depart from the educational conditions effective in the out-of-school environment, they necessarily substitute a bookish, a pseudo-intellectual spirit for a social spirit. Children doubtless go to school to learn, but it has yet to be proved that learning occurs most adequately when it is made a separate conscious business. When treating it as a business of this sort tends to preclude the social sense which comes from sharing in an activity of common concern and value, the effort at isolated intellectual learning contradicts its own aim.\r\n\r\nWe may secure motor activity and sensory excitation by keeping an individual by himself, but we cannot thereby get him to understand the meaning which things have in the life of which he is a part. We may secure technical specialized ability in algebra, Latin, or botany, but not the kind of intelligence which directs ability to useful ends. Only by engaging in a joint activity, where one person\'s use of material and tools is consciously referred to the use other persons are making of their capacities and appliances, is a social direction of disposition attained.\r\n<h2>Summary - Education as Direction</h2>\r\nThe natural or native impulses of the young do not agree with the life-customs of the group into which they are born. Consequently they have to be directed or guided. This control is not the same thing as physical compulsion; it consists in centering the impulses acting at any one time upon some specific end and in introducing an order of continuity into the sequence of acts. The action of others is always influenced by deciding what stimuli shall call out their actions. But in some cases as in commands, prohibitions, approvals, and disapprovals, the stimuli proceed from persons with a direct view to influencing action. Since in such cases we are most conscious of controlling the action of others, we are likely to exaggerate the importance of this sort of control at the expense of a more permanent and effective method.\r\n\r\nThe basic control resides in the nature of the situations in which the young take part. In social situations the young have to refer their way of acting to what others are doing and make it fit in. This directs their action to a common result, and gives an understanding common to the participants. For all mean the same thing, even when performing different acts. This common understanding of the means and ends of action is the essence of social control. It is indirect, or emotional and intellectual, not direct or personal. Moreover it is intrinsic to the disposition of the person, not external and coercive. To achieve this internal control through identity of interest and understanding is the business of education. While books and conversation can do much, these agencies are usually relied upon too exclusively. Schools require for their full efficiency more opportunity for conjoint activities in which those instructed take part, so that they may acquire a social sense of their own powers and of the materials and appliances used.', 'Education as Direction', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13148-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-17 19:56:27', '2023-02-17 19:56:27', '', 13148, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13151', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(13152, 1, '2023-02-18 07:16:06', '2023-02-18 07:16:06', 'In the general activity and uprising of ideal interests which every one with an eye for fact can discern all about us in American life, there is perhaps no more promising feature than the fermentation which for a dozen years or more has been going on among the teachers. In whatever sphere of education their functions may lie, there is to be seen among them a really inspiring amount of searching of the heart about the highest concerns of their profession. The renovation of nations begins always at the top, among the reflective members of the State, and spreads slowly outward and downward. The teachers of this country, one may say, have its future in their hands. The earnestness which they at present show in striving to enlighten and strengthen themselves is an index of the nation\'s probabilities of advance in all ideal directions.\r\n\r\nThe outward organization of <a href=\"/forums/forum/topic/learning-outcome-benchmarks-for-primary-education-in-lagos-state/\" title=\"Learning Outcome Benchmarks For Primary Education in Lagos State\">education which we have in our United States</a> is perhaps, on the whole, the best organization that exists in any country. The State school systems give a diversity and flexibility, an opportunity for experiment and keenness of competition, nowhere else to be found on such an important scale. The independence of so many of the colleges and universities; the give and take of students and instructors between them all; their emulation, and their happy organic relations to the lower schools; the traditions of instruction in them, evolved from the older American recitation-method (and so avoiding on the one hand the pure lecture-system prevalent in Germany and Scotland, which considers too little the individual student, and yet not involving the sacrifice of the instructor to the individual student, which the English tutorial system would seem too often to entail),—all these things (to say nothing of that coeducation of the sexes in whose benefits so many of us heartily believe), all these things, I say, are most happy features of our scholastic life, and from them the most sanguine auguries may be drawn.\r\n\r\nHaving so favorable an organization, all we need is to impregnate it with geniuses, to get superior men and women working more and more abundantly in it and for it and at it, and in a generation or two America may well lead the education of the world. I must say that I look forward with no little confidence to the day when that shall be an accomplished fact.\r\n\r\nNo one has profited more by the fermentation of which I speak, in pedagogical circles, than we psychologists. The desire of the schoolteachers for a completer professional training, and their aspiration toward the \'professional\' spirit in their work, have led them more and more to turn to us for light on fundamental principles. And in these few hours which we are to spend together you look to me, I am sure, for information concerning the mind\'s operations, which may enable you to labor more easily and effectively in the several schoolrooms over which you preside.\r\n\r\nFar be it from me to disclaim for psychology all title to such hopes. Psychology ought certainly to give the teacher radical help. And yet I confess that, acquainted as I am with the height of some of your expectations, I feel a little anxious lest, at the end of these simple talks of mine, not a few of you may experience some disappointment at the net results. In other words, I am not sure that you may not be indulging fancies that are just a shade exaggerated. That would not be altogether astonishing, for we have been having something like a \'boom\' in psychology in this country. Laboratories and professorships have been founded, and reviews established. The air has been full of rumors. The editors of educational journals and the arrangers of conventions have had to show themselves enterprising and on a level with the novelties of the day.\r\n\r\nSome of the professors have not been unwilling to co-operate, and I am not sure even that the publishers have been entirely inert. \'The new psychology\' has thus become a term to conjure up portentous ideas withal; and you teachers, docile and receptive and aspiring as many of you are, have been plunged in an atmosphere of vague talk about our science, which to a great extent has been more mystifying than enlightening. Altogether it does seem as if there were a certain fatality of mystification laid upon the teachers of our day. The matter of their profession, compact enough in itself, has to be frothed up for them in journals and institutes, till its outlines often threaten to be lost in a kind of vast uncertainty. Where the disciples are not independent and critical-minded enough (and I think that, if you teachers in the earlier grades have any defect—the slightest touch of a defect in the world—it is that you are a mite too docile), we are pretty sure to miss accuracy and balance and measure in those who get a license to lay down the law to them from above.\r\n\r\nAs regards this subject of psychology, now, I wish at the very threshold to do what I can to dispel the mystification. So I say at once that in my humble opinion there <i>is</i> no \'new psychology\' worthy of the name. There is nothing but the old psychology which began in Locke\'s time, plus a little physiology of the brain and senses and theory of evolution, and a few refinements of introspective detail, for the most part without adaptation to the teacher\'s use. It is only the fundamental conceptions of psychology which are of real value to the teacher; and they, apart from the aforesaid theory of evolution, are very far from being new.—I trust that you will see better what I mean by this at the end of all these talks.\r\n\r\nI say moreover that you make a great, a very great mistake, if you think that psychology, being the science of the mind\'s laws, is something from which you can deduce definite programmes and schemes and methods of instruction for immediate schoolroom use. Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediary inventive mind must make the application, by using its originality.\r\n\r\nThe science of logic never made a man reason rightly, and the science of ethics (if there be such a thing) never made a man behave rightly. The most such sciences can do is to help us to catch ourselves up and check ourselves, if we start to reason or to behave wrongly; and to criticise ourselves more articulately after we have made mistakes. A science only lays down lines within which the rules of the art must fall, laws which the follower of the art must not transgress; but what particular thing he shall positively do within those lines is left exclusively to his own genius. One genius will do his work well and succeed in one way, while another succeeds as well quite differently; yet neither will transgress the lines.\r\n\r\nThe art of teaching grew up in the schoolroom, out of inventiveness and sympathetic concrete observation. Even where (as in the case of Herbart) the advancer of the art was also a psychologist, the pedagogics and the psychology ran side by side, and the former was not derived in any sense from the latter. The two were congruent, but neither was subordinate. And so everywhere the teaching must <i>agree</i> with the psychology, but need not necessarily be the only kind of teaching that would so agree; for many diverse methods of teaching may equally well agree with psychological laws.\r\n\r\nTo know psychology, therefore, is absolutely no guarantee that we shall be good teachers. To advance to that result, we must have an additional endowment altogether, a happy tact and ingenuity to tell us what definite things to say and do when the pupil is before us. That ingenuity in meeting and pursuing the pupil, that tact for the concrete situation, though they are the alpha and omega of the teacher\'s art, are things to which psychology cannot help us in the least.\r\n\r\nThe science of psychology, and whatever science of general pedagogics may be based on it, are in fact much like the science of war. Nothing is simpler or more definite than the principles of either. In war, all you have to do is to work your enemy into a position from which the natural obstacles prevent him from escaping if he tries to; then to fall on him in numbers superior to his own, at a moment when you have led him to think you far away; and so, with a minimum of exposure of your own troops, to hack his force to pieces, and take the remainder prisoners. Just so, in teaching, you must simply work your pupil into such a state of interest in what you are going to teach him that every other object of attention is banished from his mind; then reveal it to him so impressively that he will remember the occasion to his dying day; and finally fill him with devouring curiosity to know what the next steps in connection with the subject are.\r\n\r\nThe principles being so plain, there would be nothing but victories for the masters of the science, either on the battlefield or in the schoolroom, if they did not both have to make their application to an incalculable quantity in the shape of the mind of their opponent. The mind of your own enemy, the pupil, is working away from you as keenly and eagerly as is the mind of the commander on the other side from the scientific general. Just what the respective enemies want and think, and what they know and do not know, are as hard things for the teacher as for the general to find out. Divination and perception, not psychological pedagogics or theoretic strategy, are the only helpers here.\r\n\r\nBut, if the use of psychological principles thus be negative rather than positive, it does not follow that it may not be a great use, all the same. It certainly narrows the path for experiments and trials. We know in advance, if we are psychologists, that certain methods will be wrong, so our psychology saves us from mistakes. It makes us, moreover, more clear as to what we are about. We gain confidence in respect to any method which we are using as soon as we believe that it has theory as well as practice at its back. Most of all, it fructifies our independence, and it reanimates our interest, to see our subject at two different angles,—to get a stereoscopic view, so to speak, of the youthful organism who is our enemy, and, while handling him with all our concrete tact and divination, to be able, at the same time, to represent to ourselves the curious inner elements of his mental machine. Such a complete knowledge as this of the pupil, at once intuitive and analytic, is surely the knowledge at which every teacher ought to aim.\r\n\r\nFortunately for you teachers, the elements of the mental machine can be clearly apprehended, and their workings easily grasped. And, as the most general elements and workings are just those parts of psychology which the teacher finds most directly useful, it follows that the amount of this science which is necessary to all teachers need not be very great. Those who find themselves loving the subject may go as far as they please, and become possibly none the worse teachers for the fact, even though in some of them one might apprehend a little loss of balance from the tendency observable in all of us to overemphasize certain special parts of a subject when we are studying it intensely and abstractly. But for the great majority of you a general view is enough, provided it be a true one; and such a general view, one may say, might almost be written on the palm of one\'s hand.\r\n\r\nLeast of all need you, merely <i>as teachers</i>, deem it part of your duty to become contributors to psychological science or to make psychological observations in a methodical or responsible manner. I fear that some of the enthusiasts for child-study have thrown a certain burden on you in this way. By all means let child-study go on,—it is refreshing all our sense of the child\'s life. There are teachers who take a spontaneous delight in filling syllabuses, inscribing observations, compiling statistics, and computing the per cent. Child-study will certainly enrich their lives. And, if its results, as treated statistically, would seem on the whole to have but trifling value, yet the anecdotes and observations of which it in part consist do certainly acquaint us more intimately with our pupils.\r\n\r\nThe American educational organization,—What teachers may expect from psychology,—Teaching methods must agree with psychology, but cannot be immediately deduced therefrom,—The science of teaching and the science of war,—The educational uses of psychology defined,—The teacher\'s duty toward child-study. Our eyes and ears grow quickened to discern in the child before us processes similar to those we have read of as noted in the children,—processes of which we might otherwise have remained inobservant. But, for Heaven\'s sake, let the rank and file of teachers be passive readers if they so prefer, and feel free not to contribute to the accumulation. Let not the prosecution of it be preached as an imperative duty or imposed by regulation on those to whom it proves an exterminating bore, or who in any way whatever miss in themselves the appropriate vocation for it. I cannot too strongly agree with my colleague, Professor Münsterberg, when he says that the teacher\'s attitude toward the child, being concrete and ethical, is positively opposed to the psychological observer\'s, which is abstract and analytic. Although some of us may conjoin the attitudes successfully, in most of us they must conflict.\r\n\r\nThe worst thing that can happen to a good teacher is to get a bad conscience about her profession because she feels herself hopeless as a psychologist. Our teachers are overworked already. Every one who adds a jot or tittle of unnecessary weight to their burden is a foe of education. A bad conscience increases the weight of every other burden; yet I know that child-study, and other pieces of psychology as well, have been productive of bad conscience in many a really innocent pedagogic breast. I should indeed be glad if this passing word from me might tend to dispel such a bad conscience, if any of you have it; for it is certainly one of those fruits of more or less systematic mystification of which I have already complained. The best teacher may be the poorest contributor of child-study material, and the best contributor may be the poorest teacher. No fact is more palpable than this.\r\n\r\nSo much for what seems the most reasonable general attitude of the teacher toward the subject which is to occupy our attention.', 'PSYCHOLOGY AND THE TEACHING ART', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'psychology-and-the-teaching-art', '', '', '2023-04-23 14:35:59', '2023-04-23 14:35:59', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13152', 0, 'post', '', 0),
(13153, 1, '2023-02-18 07:16:06', '2023-02-18 07:16:06', 'In the general activity and uprising of ideal interests which every one with an eye for fact can discern all about us in American life, there is perhaps no more promising feature than the fermentation which for a dozen years or more has been going on among the teachers. In whatever sphere of education their functions may lie, there is to be seen among them a really inspiring amount of searching of the heart about the highest concerns of their profession. The renovation of nations begins always at the top, among the reflective members of the State, and spreads slowly outward and downward. The teachers of this country, one may say, have its future in their hands. The earnestness which they at present show in striving to enlighten and strengthen themselves is an index of the nation\'s probabilities of advance in all ideal directions.\r\n\r\nThe outward organization of education which we have in our United States is perhaps, on the whole, the best organization that exists in any country. The State school systems give a diversity and flexibility, an opportunity for experiment and keenness of competition, nowhere else to be found on such an important scale. The independence of so many of the colleges and universities; the give and take of students and instructors between them all; their emulation, and their happy organic relations to the lower schools; the traditions of instruction in them, evolved from the older American recitation-method (and so avoiding on the one hand the pure lecture-system prevalent in Germany and Scotland, which considers too little the individual student, and yet not involving the sacrifice of the instructor to the individual student, which the English tutorial system would seem too often to entail),—all these things (to say nothing of that coeducation of the sexes in whose benefits so many of us heartily believe), all these things, I say, are most happy features of our scholastic life, and from them the most sanguine auguries may be drawn.\r\n\r\nHaving so favorable an organization, all we need is to impregnate it with geniuses, to get superior men and women working more and more abundantly in it and for it and at it, and in a generation or two America may well lead the education of the world. I must say that I look forward with no little confidence to the day when that shall be an accomplished fact.\r\n\r\nNo one has profited more by the fermentation of which I speak, in pedagogical circles, than we psychologists. The desire of the schoolteachers for a completer professional training, and their aspiration toward the \'professional\' spirit in their work, have led them more and more to turn to us for light on fundamental principles. And in these few hours which we are to spend together you look to me, I am sure, for information concerning the mind\'s operations, which may enable you to labor more easily and effectively in the several schoolrooms over which you preside.\r\n\r\nFar be it from me to disclaim for psychology all title to such hopes. Psychology ought certainly to give the teacher radical help. And yet I confess that, acquainted as I am with the height of some of your expectations, I feel a little anxious lest, at the end of these simple talks of mine, not a few of you may experience some disappointment at the net results. In other words, I am not sure that you may not be indulging fancies that are just a shade exaggerated. That would not be altogether astonishing, for we have been having something like a \'boom\' in psychology in this country. Laboratories and professorships have been founded, and reviews established. The air has been full of rumors. The editors of educational journals and the arrangers of conventions have had to show themselves enterprising and on a level with the novelties of the day.\r\n\r\nSome of the professors have not been unwilling to co-operate, and I am not sure even that the publishers have been entirely inert. \'The new psychology\' has thus become a term to conjure up portentous ideas withal; and you teachers, docile and receptive and aspiring as many of you are, have been plunged in an atmosphere of vague talk about our science, which to a great extent has been more mystifying than enlightening. Altogether it does seem as if there were a certain fatality of mystification laid upon the teachers of our day. The matter of their profession, compact enough in itself, has to be frothed up for them in journals and institutes, till its outlines often threaten to be lost in a kind of vast uncertainty. Where the disciples are not independent and critical-minded enough (and I think that, if you teachers in the earlier grades have any defect—the slightest touch of a defect in the world—it is that you are a mite too docile), we are pretty sure to miss accuracy and balance and measure in those who get a license to lay down the law to them from above.\r\n\r\nAs regards this subject of psychology, now, I wish at the very threshold to do what I can to dispel the mystification. So I say at once that in my humble opinion there <i>is</i> no \'new psychology\' worthy of the name. There is nothing but the old psychology which began in Locke\'s time, plus a little physiology of the brain and senses and theory of evolution, and a few refinements of introspective detail, for the most part without adaptation to the teacher\'s use. It is only the fundamental conceptions of psychology which are of real value to the teacher; and they, apart from the aforesaid theory of evolution, are very far from being new.—I trust that you will see better what I mean by this at the end of all these talks.\r\n\r\nI say moreover that you make a great, a very great mistake, if you think that psychology, being the science of the mind\'s laws, is something from which you can deduce definite programmes and schemes and methods of instruction for immediate schoolroom use. Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediary inventive mind must make the application, by using its originality.\r\n\r\nThe science of logic never made a man reason rightly, and the science of ethics (if there be such a thing) never made a man behave rightly. The most such sciences can do is to help us to catch ourselves up and check ourselves, if we start to reason or to behave wrongly; and to criticise ourselves more articulately after we have made mistakes. A science only lays down lines within which the rules of the art must fall, laws which the follower of the art must not transgress; but what particular thing he shall positively do within those lines is left exclusively to his own genius. One genius will do his work well and succeed in one way, while another succeeds as well quite differently; yet neither will transgress the lines.\r\n\r\nThe art of teaching grew up in the schoolroom, out of inventiveness and sympathetic concrete observation. Even where (as in the case of Herbart) the advancer of the art was also a psychologist, the pedagogics and the psychology ran side by side, and the former was not derived in any sense from the latter. The two were congruent, but neither was subordinate. And so everywhere the teaching must <i>agree</i> with the psychology, but need not necessarily be the only kind of teaching that would so agree; for many diverse methods of teaching may equally well agree with psychological laws.\r\n\r\nTo know psychology, therefore, is absolutely no guarantee that we shall be good teachers. To advance to that result, we must have an additional endowment altogether, a happy tact and ingenuity to tell us what definite things to say and do when the pupil is before us. That ingenuity in meeting and pursuing the pupil, that tact for the concrete situation, though they are the alpha and omega of the teacher\'s art, are things to which psychology cannot help us in the least.\r\n\r\nThe science of psychology, and whatever science of general pedagogics may be based on it, are in fact much like the science of war. Nothing is simpler or more definite than the principles of either. In war, all you have to do is to work your enemy into a position from which the natural obstacles prevent him from escaping if he tries to; then to fall on him in numbers superior to his own, at a moment when you have led him to think you far away; and so, with a minimum of exposure of your own troops, to hack his force to pieces, and take the remainder prisoners. Just so, in teaching, you must simply work your pupil into such a state of interest in what you are going to teach him that every other object of attention is banished from his mind; then reveal it to him so impressively that he will remember the occasion to his dying day; and finally fill him with devouring curiosity to know what the next steps in connection with the subject are.\r\n\r\nThe principles being so plain, there would be nothing but victories for the masters of the science, either on the battlefield or in the schoolroom, if they did not both have to make their application to an incalculable quantity in the shape of the mind of their opponent. The mind of your own enemy, the pupil, is working away from you as keenly and eagerly as is the mind of the commander on the other side from the scientific general. Just what the respective enemies want and think, and what they know and do not know, are as hard things for the teacher as for the general to find out. Divination and perception, not psychological pedagogics or theoretic strategy, are the only helpers here.\r\n\r\nBut, if the use of psychological principles thus be negative rather than positive, it does not follow that it may not be a great use, all the same. It certainly narrows the path for experiments and trials. We know in advance, if we are psychologists, that certain methods will be wrong, so our psychology saves us from mistakes. It makes us, moreover, more clear as to what we are about. We gain confidence in respect to any method which we are using as soon as we believe that it has theory as well as practice at its back. Most of all, it fructifies our independence, and it reanimates our interest, to see our subject at two different angles,—to get a stereoscopic view, so to speak, of the youthful organism who is our enemy, and, while handling him with all our concrete tact and divination, to be able, at the same time, to represent to ourselves the curious inner elements of his mental machine. Such a complete knowledge as this of the pupil, at once intuitive and analytic, is surely the knowledge at which every teacher ought to aim.\r\n\r\nFortunately for you teachers, the elements of the mental machine can be clearly apprehended, and their workings easily grasped. And, as the most general elements and workings are just those parts of psychology which the teacher finds most directly useful, it follows that the amount of this science which is necessary to all teachers need not be very great. Those who find themselves loving the subject may go as far as they please, and become possibly none the worse teachers for the fact, even though in some of them one might apprehend a little loss of balance from the tendency observable in all of us to overemphasize certain special parts of a subject when we are studying it intensely and abstractly. But for the great majority of you a general view is enough, provided it be a true one; and such a general view, one may say, might almost be written on the palm of one\'s hand.\r\n\r\nLeast of all need you, merely <i>as teachers</i>, deem it part of your duty to become contributors to psychological science or to make psychological observations in a methodical or responsible manner. I fear that some of the enthusiasts for child-study have thrown a certain burden on you in this way. By all means let child-study go on,—it is refreshing all our sense of the child\'s life. There are teachers who take a spontaneous delight in filling syllabuses, inscribing observations, compiling statistics, and computing the per cent. Child-study will certainly enrich their lives. And, if its results, as treated statistically, would seem on the whole to have but trifling value, yet the anecdotes and observations of which it in part consist do certainly acquaint us more intimately with our pupils.\r\n\r\nThe American educational organization,—What teachers may expect from psychology,—Teaching methods must agree with psychology, but cannot be immediately deduced therefrom,—The science of teaching and the science of war,—The educational uses of psychology defined,—The teacher\'s duty toward child-study. Our eyes and ears grow quickened to discern in the child before us processes similar to those we have read of as noted in the children,—processes of which we might otherwise have remained inobservant. But, for Heaven\'s sake, let the rank and file of teachers be passive readers if they so prefer, and feel free not to contribute to the accumulation. Let not the prosecution of it be preached as an imperative duty or imposed by regulation on those to whom it proves an exterminating bore, or who in any way whatever miss in themselves the appropriate vocation for it. I cannot too strongly agree with my colleague, Professor Münsterberg, when he says that the teacher\'s attitude toward the child, being concrete and ethical, is positively opposed to the psychological observer\'s, which is abstract and analytic. Although some of us may conjoin the attitudes successfully, in most of us they must conflict.\r\n\r\nThe worst thing that can happen to a good teacher is to get a bad conscience about her profession because she feels herself hopeless as a psychologist. Our teachers are overworked already. Every one who adds a jot or tittle of unnecessary weight to their burden is a foe of education. A bad conscience increases the weight of every other burden; yet I know that child-study, and other pieces of psychology as well, have been productive of bad conscience in many a really innocent pedagogic breast. I should indeed be glad if this passing word from me might tend to dispel such a bad conscience, if any of you have it; for it is certainly one of those fruits of more or less systematic mystification of which I have already complained. The best teacher may be the poorest contributor of child-study material, and the best contributor may be the poorest teacher. No fact is more palpable than this.\r\n\r\nSo much for what seems the most reasonable general attitude of the teacher toward the subject which is to occupy our attention.', 'PSYCHOLOGY AND THE TEACHING ART', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13152-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 07:16:06', '2023-02-18 07:16:06', '', 13152, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13153', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13154, 1, '2023-02-18 07:21:12', '2023-02-18 07:21:12', 'I said a few minutes ago that the most general elements and workings of the mind are all that the teacher absolutely needs to be acquainted with for his purposes.\r\n\r\nNow the <i>immediate</i> fact which psychology, the science of mind, has to study is also the most general fact. It is the fact that in each of us, when awake (and often when asleep), <i>some kind of consciousness is always going on</i>. There is a stream, a succession of states, or waves, or fields (or of whatever you please to call them), of knowledge, of feeling, of desire, of deliberation, etc., that constantly pass and repass, and that constitute our inner life. The existence of this stream is the primal fact, the nature and origin of it form the essential problem, of our science. So far as we class the states or fields of consciousness, write down their several natures, analyze their contents into elements, or trace their habits of succession, we are on the descriptive or analytic level. So far as we ask where they come from or why they are just what they are, we are on the explanatory level.\r\n\r\nIn these talks with you, I shall entirely neglect the questions that come up on the explanatory level. It must be frankly confessed that in no fundamental sense do we know where our successive fields of consciousness come from, or why they have the precise inner constitution which they do have. They certainly follow or accompany our brain states, and of course their special forms are determined by our past experiences and education. But, if we ask just <i>how</i> the brain conditions them, we have not the remotest inkling of an answer to give; and, if we ask just how the education moulds the brain, we can speak but in the most abstract, general, and conjectural terms.\r\n\r\nOn the other hand, if we should say that they are due to a spiritual being called our Soul, which reacts on our brain states by these peculiar forms of spiritual energy, our words would be familiar enough, it is true; but I think you will agree that they would offer little genuine explanatory meaning. The truth is that we really <i>do not know</i> the answers to the problems on the explanatory level, even though in some directions of inquiry there may be promising speculations to be found. For our present purposes I shall therefore dismiss them entirely, and turn to mere description. This state of things was what I had in mind when, a moment ago, I said there was no \'new psychology\' worthy of the name.\r\n\r\n<i>We have thus fields of consciousness</i>,—that is the first general fact; and the second general fact is that the concrete fields are always complex. They contain sensations of our bodies and of the objects around us, memories of past experiences and thoughts of distant things, feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction, desires and aversions, and other emotional conditions, together with determinations of the will, in every variety of permutation and combination.\r\n\r\nIn most of our concrete states of consciousness all these different classes of ingredients are found simultaneously present to some degree, though the relative proportion they bear to one another is very shifting. One state will seem to be composed of hardly anything but sensations, another of hardly anything but memories, etc. But around the sensation, if one consider carefully, there will always be some fringe of thought or will, and around the memory some margin or penumbra of emotion or sensation.\r\n\r\nIn most of our fields of consciousness there is a core of sensation that is very pronounced. You, for example, now, although you are also thinking and feeling, are getting through your eyes sensations of my face and figure, and through your ears sensations of my voice. The sensations are the <i>centre</i> or <i>focus</i>, the thoughts and feelings the <i>margin</i>, of your actually present conscious field.\r\n\r\nOn the other hand, some object of thought, some distant image, may have become the focus of your mental attention even while I am speaking,—your mind, in short, may have wandered from the lecture; and, in that case, the sensations of my face and voice, although not absolutely vanishing from your conscious field, may have taken up there a very faint and marginal place.\r\n\r\nAgain, to take another sort of variation, some feeling connected with your own body may have passed from a marginal to a focal place, even while I speak.\r\n\r\nThe expressions \'focal object\' and \'marginal object,\' which we owe to Mr. Lloyd Morgan, require, I think, no further explanation. The distinction they embody is a very important one, and they are the first technical terms which I shall ask you to remember.\r\n\r\nIn the successive mutations of our fields of consciousness, the process by which one dissolves into another is often very gradual, and all sorts of inner rearrangements of contents occur. Sometimes the focus remains but little changed, while the margin alters rapidly. Sometimes the focus alters, and the margin stays. Sometimes focus and margin change places. Sometimes, again, abrupt alterations of the whole field occur. There can seldom be a sharp description. All we know is that, for the most part, each field has a sort of practical unity for its possessor, and that from this practical point of view we can class a field with other fields similar to it, by calling it a state of emotion, of perplexity, of sensation, of abstract thought, of volition, and the like.\r\n\r\nVague and hazy as such an account of our stream of consciousness may be, it is at least secure from positive error and free from admixture of conjecture or hypothesis. An influential school of psychology, seeking to avoid haziness of outline, has tried to make things appear more exact and scientific by making the analysis more sharp.\r\n\r\nThe various fields of consciousness, according to this school, result from a definite number of perfectly definite elementary mental states, mechanically associated into a mosaic or chemically combined. According to some thinkers,—Spencer, for example, or Taine,—these resolve themselves at last into little elementary psychic particles or atoms of \'mind-stuff,\' out of which all the more immediately known mental states are said to be built up. Locke introduced this theory in a somewhat vague form. Simple \'ideas\' of sensation and reflection, as he called them, were for him the bricks of which our mental architecture is built up. If I ever have to refer to this theory again, I shall refer to it as the theory of \'ideas.\' But I shall try to steer clear of it altogether. Whether it be true or false, it is at any rate only conjectural; and, for your practical purposes as teachers, the more unpretending conception of the stream of consciousness, with its total waves or fields incessantly changing, will amply suffice.<a id=\"FNanchor_A_1\"></a><a class=\"fnanchor pginternal\" href=\"https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/16287/pg16287-images.html#Footnote_A_1\">[A]</a>\r\n<div class=\"footnote\">\r\n\r\n<a id=\"Footnote_A_1\"></a><a class=\"pginternal\" href=\"https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/16287/pg16287-images.html#FNanchor_A_1\"><span class=\"label\">[A]</span></a>In the light of some of the expectations that are abroad concerning the \'new psychology,\' it is instructive to read the unusually candid confession of its founder Wundt, after his thirty years of laboratory-experience:\r\n\r\n\"The service which it [the experimental method] can yield consists essentially in perfecting our inner observation, or rather, as I believe, in making this really possible, in any exact sense. Well, has our experimental self-observation, so understood, already accomplished aught of importance? No general answer to this question can be given, because in the unfinished state of our science, there is, even inside of the experimental lines of inquiry, no universally accepted body of psychologic doctrine....\r\n\r\n\"In such a discord of opinions (comprehensible enough at a time of uncertain and groping development), the individual inquirer can only tell for what views and insights he himself has to thank the newer methods. And if I were asked in what for me the worth of experimental observation in psychology has consisted, and still consists, I should say that it has given me an entirely new idea of the nature and connection of our inner processes. I learned in the achievements of the sense of sight to apprehend the fact of creative mental synthesis.... From my inquiry into time-relations, etc.,... I attained an insight into the close union of all those psychic functions usually separated by artificial abstractions and names, such as ideation, feeling, will; and I saw the indivisibility and inner homogeneity, in all its phases, of the mental life.\r\n\r\nThe chronometric study of association-processes finally showed me that the notion of distinct mental \'images\' [<i>reproducirten Vorstellungen</i>] was one of those numerous self-deceptions which are no sooner stamped in a verbal term than they forthwith thrust non-existent fictions into the place of the reality.\r\n\r\nI learned to understand an \'idea\' as a process no less melting and fleeting than an act of feeling or of will, and I comprehended the older doctrine of association of \'ideas\' to be no longer tenable.... Besides all this, experimental observation yielded much other information about the span of consciousness, the rapidity of certain processes, the exact numerical value of certain psychophysical data, and the like. But I hold all these more special results to be relatively insignificant by-products, and by no means the important thing.\"—<i>Philosophische Studien</i>, x. 121-124. The whole passage should be read. As I interpret it, it amounts to a complete espousal of the vaguer conception of the stream of thought, and a complete renunciation of the whole business, still so industriously carried on in text-books, of chopping up \'the mind\' into distinct units of composition or function, numbering these off, and labelling them by technical names.\r\n\r\n</div>', 'THE STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'the-stream-of-consciousness', '', '', '2023-02-18 07:21:12', '2023-02-18 07:21:12', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13154', 0, 'post', '', 0);
