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(13155, 1, '2023-02-18 07:21:12', '2023-02-18 07:21:12', 'I said a few minutes ago that the most general elements and workings of the mind are all that the teacher absolutely needs to be acquainted with for his purposes.\r\n\r\nNow the <i>immediate</i> fact which psychology, the science of mind, has to study is also the most general fact. It is the fact that in each of us, when awake (and often when asleep), <i>some kind of consciousness is always going on</i>. There is a stream, a succession of states, or waves, or fields (or of whatever you please to call them), of knowledge, of feeling, of desire, of deliberation, etc., that constantly pass and repass, and that constitute our inner life. The existence of this stream is the primal fact, the nature and origin of it form the essential problem, of our science. So far as we class the states or fields of consciousness, write down their several natures, analyze their contents into elements, or trace their habits of succession, we are on the descriptive or analytic level. So far as we ask where they come from or why they are just what they are, we are on the explanatory level.\r\n\r\nIn these talks with you, I shall entirely neglect the questions that come up on the explanatory level. It must be frankly confessed that in no fundamental sense do we know where our successive fields of consciousness come from, or why they have the precise inner constitution which they do have. They certainly follow or accompany our brain states, and of course their special forms are determined by our past experiences and education. But, if we ask just <i>how</i> the brain conditions them, we have not the remotest inkling of an answer to give; and, if we ask just how the education moulds the brain, we can speak but in the most abstract, general, and conjectural terms.\r\n\r\nOn the other hand, if we should say that they are due to a spiritual being called our Soul, which reacts on our brain states by these peculiar forms of spiritual energy, our words would be familiar enough, it is true; but I think you will agree that they would offer little genuine explanatory meaning. The truth is that we really <i>do not know</i> the answers to the problems on the explanatory level, even though in some directions of inquiry there may be promising speculations to be found. For our present purposes I shall therefore dismiss them entirely, and turn to mere description. This state of things was what I had in mind when, a moment ago, I said there was no \'new psychology\' worthy of the name.\r\n\r\n<i>We have thus fields of consciousness</i>,—that is the first general fact; and the second general fact is that the concrete fields are always complex. They contain sensations of our bodies and of the objects around us, memories of past experiences and thoughts of distant things, feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction, desires and aversions, and other emotional conditions, together with determinations of the will, in every variety of permutation and combination.\r\n\r\nIn most of our concrete states of consciousness all these different classes of ingredients are found simultaneously present to some degree, though the relative proportion they bear to one another is very shifting. One state will seem to be composed of hardly anything but sensations, another of hardly anything but memories, etc. But around the sensation, if one consider carefully, there will always be some fringe of thought or will, and around the memory some margin or penumbra of emotion or sensation.\r\n\r\nIn most of our fields of consciousness there is a core of sensation that is very pronounced. You, for example, now, although you are also thinking and feeling, are getting through your eyes sensations of my face and figure, and through your ears sensations of my voice. The sensations are the <i>centre</i> or <i>focus</i>, the thoughts and feelings the <i>margin</i>, of your actually present conscious field.\r\n\r\nOn the other hand, some object of thought, some distant image, may have become the focus of your mental attention even while I am speaking,—your mind, in short, may have wandered from the lecture; and, in that case, the sensations of my face and voice, although not absolutely vanishing from your conscious field, may have taken up there a very faint and marginal place.\r\n\r\nAgain, to take another sort of variation, some feeling connected with your own body may have passed from a marginal to a focal place, even while I speak.\r\n\r\nThe expressions \'focal object\' and \'marginal object,\' which we owe to Mr. Lloyd Morgan, require, I think, no further explanation. The distinction they embody is a very important one, and they are the first technical terms which I shall ask you to remember.\r\n\r\nIn the successive mutations of our fields of consciousness, the process by which one dissolves into another is often very gradual, and all sorts of inner rearrangements of contents occur. Sometimes the focus remains but little changed, while the margin alters rapidly. Sometimes the focus alters, and the margin stays. Sometimes focus and margin change places. Sometimes, again, abrupt alterations of the whole field occur. There can seldom be a sharp description. All we know is that, for the most part, each field has a sort of practical unity for its possessor, and that from this practical point of view we can class a field with other fields similar to it, by calling it a state of emotion, of perplexity, of sensation, of abstract thought, of volition, and the like.\r\n\r\nVague and hazy as such an account of our stream of consciousness may be, it is at least secure from positive error and free from admixture of conjecture or hypothesis. An influential school of psychology, seeking to avoid haziness of outline, has tried to make things appear more exact and scientific by making the analysis more sharp.\r\n\r\nThe various fields of consciousness, according to this school, result from a definite number of perfectly definite elementary mental states, mechanically associated into a mosaic or chemically combined. According to some thinkers,—Spencer, for example, or Taine,—these resolve themselves at last into little elementary psychic particles or atoms of \'mind-stuff,\' out of which all the more immediately known mental states are said to be built up. Locke introduced this theory in a somewhat vague form. Simple \'ideas\' of sensation and reflection, as he called them, were for him the bricks of which our mental architecture is built up. If I ever have to refer to this theory again, I shall refer to it as the theory of \'ideas.\' But I shall try to steer clear of it altogether. Whether it be true or false, it is at any rate only conjectural; and, for your practical purposes as teachers, the more unpretending conception of the stream of consciousness, with its total waves or fields incessantly changing, will amply suffice.<a id=\"FNanchor_A_1\"></a><a class=\"fnanchor pginternal\" href=\"https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/16287/pg16287-images.html#Footnote_A_1\">[A]</a>\r\n<div class=\"footnote\">\r\n\r\n<a id=\"Footnote_A_1\"></a><a class=\"pginternal\" href=\"https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/16287/pg16287-images.html#FNanchor_A_1\"><span class=\"label\">[A]</span></a>In the light of some of the expectations that are abroad concerning the \'new psychology,\' it is instructive to read the unusually candid confession of its founder Wundt, after his thirty years of laboratory-experience:\r\n\r\n\"The service which it [the experimental method] can yield consists essentially in perfecting our inner observation, or rather, as I believe, in making this really possible, in any exact sense. Well, has our experimental self-observation, so understood, already accomplished aught of importance? No general answer to this question can be given, because in the unfinished state of our science, there is, even inside of the experimental lines of inquiry, no universally accepted body of psychologic doctrine....\r\n\r\n\"In such a discord of opinions (comprehensible enough at a time of uncertain and groping development), the individual inquirer can only tell for what views and insights he himself has to thank the newer methods. And if I were asked in what for me the worth of experimental observation in psychology has consisted, and still consists, I should say that it has given me an entirely new idea of the nature and connection of our inner processes. I learned in the achievements of the sense of sight to apprehend the fact of creative mental synthesis.... From my inquiry into time-relations, etc.,... I attained an insight into the close union of all those psychic functions usually separated by artificial abstractions and names, such as ideation, feeling, will; and I saw the indivisibility and inner homogeneity, in all its phases, of the mental life.\r\n\r\nThe chronometric study of association-processes finally showed me that the notion of distinct mental \'images\' [<i>reproducirten Vorstellungen</i>] was one of those numerous self-deceptions which are no sooner stamped in a verbal term than they forthwith thrust non-existent fictions into the place of the reality.\r\n\r\nI learned to understand an \'idea\' as a process no less melting and fleeting than an act of feeling or of will, and I comprehended the older doctrine of association of \'ideas\' to be no longer tenable.... Besides all this, experimental observation yielded much other information about the span of consciousness, the rapidity of certain processes, the exact numerical value of certain psychophysical data, and the like. But I hold all these more special results to be relatively insignificant by-products, and by no means the important thing.\"—<i>Philosophische Studien</i>, x. 121-124. The whole passage should be read. As I interpret it, it amounts to a complete espousal of the vaguer conception of the stream of thought, and a complete renunciation of the whole business, still so industriously carried on in text-books, of chopping up \'the mind\' into distinct units of composition or function, numbering these off, and labelling them by technical names.\r\n\r\n</div>', 'THE STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13154-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 07:21:12', '2023-02-18 07:21:12', '', 13154, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13155', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13156, 1, '2023-02-18 08:03:49', '2023-02-18 08:03:49', '', 'PROFESSIONAL (SUBJECT) FORUMS', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'professional-subject-forums', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:35:13', '2023-02-24 02:35:13', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13156', 2, 'forum', '', 0),
(13157, 1, '2023-02-18 08:03:49', '2023-02-18 08:03:49', '', 'PROFESSIONAL (SUBJECT) FORUMS', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13156-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 08:03:49', '2023-02-18 08:03:49', '', 13156, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13157', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13158, 1, '2023-02-18 08:18:00', '2023-02-18 08:18:00', 'The humanities include the studies of foreign languages, history, philosophy, language arts (literature, writing, oratory, rhetoric, poetry, etc.), performing arts (theatre, music, dance, etc.), and visual arts (painting, sculpture, photography, filmmaking, etc.);', 'Humanities', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'humanities', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:55:32', '2023-02-24 02:55:32', '', 13156, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13158', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13159, 1, '2023-02-18 08:18:00', '2023-02-18 08:18:00', 'Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture. In the Renaissance, the term contrasted with divinity and referred to what is now called classics, the main area of secular study in universities at the time. Today, the humanities are more frequently defined as any fields of study outside of natural sciences, social sciences, formal sciences (like mathematics) and applied sciences (or professional training). They use methods that are primarily critical, or speculative, and have a significant historical element—as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences; yet, unlike the sciences, there is no general history of humanities as a distinct discipline in its own right.\r\n\r\nThe humanities include the studies of foreign languages, history, philosophy, language arts (literature, writing, oratory, rhetoric, poetry, etc.), performing arts (theater, music, dance, etc.), and visual arts (painting, sculpture, photography, filmmaking, etc.); culinary art or cookery is interdisciplinary and may be considered both a humanity and a science. Some definitions of the humanities include law and religion, but these are not universally accepted. Although anthropology, archaeology, geography, linguistics, logic, and sociology share some similarities with the humanities, these are widely considered sciences; similarly economics, finance, and political science are not typically considered humanities.', 'Humanities', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13158-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 08:18:00', '2023-02-18 08:18:00', '', 13158, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13159', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13160, 1, '2023-02-18 08:25:29', '2023-02-18 08:25:29', 'Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original \"science of society\", established in the 19th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, human geography, linguistics, management science, communication science and political science.', 'Social Science', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'social-science', '', '', '2023-02-18 08:25:29', '2023-02-18 08:25:29', '', 13156, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13160', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13161, 1, '2023-02-18 08:25:29', '2023-02-18 08:25:29', 'Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original \"science of society\", established in the 19th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, human geography, linguistics, management science, communication science and political science.', 'Social Science', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13160-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 08:25:29', '2023-02-18 08:25:29', '', 13160, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13161', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13162, 1, '2023-02-18 08:32:23', '2023-02-18 08:32:23', 'Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science.', 'Natural Science', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'natural-science', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:57:59', '2023-02-24 02:57:59', '', 13156, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13162', 7, 'forum', '', 0),
(13163, 1, '2023-02-18 08:32:23', '2023-02-18 08:32:23', 'Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances.\r\n\r\nNatural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology, and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics, chemistry, earth science, and astronomy. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements which can be explained as clear statements of the \"laws of nature\".', 'Natural Science', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13162-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 08:32:23', '2023-02-18 08:32:23', '', 13162, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13163', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13164, 1, '2023-02-18 08:59:02', '2023-02-18 08:59:02', 'Formal science is a branch of science studying disciplines concerned with abstract structures described by formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, information theory, game theory, systems theory, decision theory, and theoretical linguistics.', 'Formal Science', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'formal-science', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:46:01', '2023-02-24 02:46:01', '', 13156, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13164', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13165, 1, '2023-02-18 08:59:02', '2023-02-18 08:59:02', 'A formal science is a branch of science studying disciplines concerned with abstract structures described by formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, information theory, game theory, systems theory, decision theory, and theoretical linguistics. Whereas the natural sciences and social sciences seek to characterize physical systems and social systems, respectively, using empirical methods, the formal sciences use language tools concerned with characterizing abstract structures described by formal systems. The formal sciences aid the natural and social sciences by providing information about the structures used to describe the physical world, and what inferences may be made about them.', 'Formal Science', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13164-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 08:59:02', '2023-02-18 08:59:02', '', 13164, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13165', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13166, 1, '2023-02-18 09:04:57', '2023-02-18 09:04:57', 'Applied science includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine. Applied science often contrasts with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena.', 'Applied science', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'applied-science', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:43:13', '2023-02-24 02:43:13', '', 13156, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13166', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13167, 1, '2023-02-18 09:04:57', '2023-02-18 09:04:57', 'Applied science is the use of the scientific method and knowledge obtained via conclusions from the method to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine. Applied science is often contrasted with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena.\r\n\r\nApplied science can also apply formal science, such as statistics and probability theory, as in epidemiology. Genetic epidemiology is an applied science applying both biological and statistical methods. Applied science can also apply social science, such as application of psychology in applied psychology, criminology and law.', 'Applied science', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13166-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 09:04:57', '2023-02-18 09:04:57', '', 13166, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13167', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13168, 1, '2023-02-18 09:33:20', '2023-02-18 09:33:20', 'This is Performing Arts Forum. The performing arts are arts such as music, dance, and drama which are performed for an audience. They are different from the visual arts, which are the use of paint, canvas or various materials to create physical or static art objects. Performing arts include a range of disciplines which are performed in front of a live audience, including theatre, music, and dance.', 'Performing Arts Forum', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'performing-arts-forum', '', '', '2023-02-18 09:33:20', '2023-02-18 09:33:20', '', 13158, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13168', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13169, 1, '2023-02-18 09:33:20', '2023-02-18 09:33:20', 'This is Performing Arts Forum. The performing arts are arts such as music, dance, and drama which are performed for an audience. They are different from the visual arts, which are the use of paint, canvas or various materials to create physical or static art objects. Performing arts include a range of disciplines which are performed in front of a live audience, including theatre, music, and dance.', 'Performing Arts Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13168-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 09:33:20', '2023-02-18 09:33:20', '', 13168, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13169', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13170, 1, '2023-02-18 10:08:09', '2023-02-18 10:08:09', 'The visual arts are art forms such as painting, drawing, printmaking, sculpture, ceramics, photography, video, filmmaking, design, crafts and architecture. Many artistic disciplines such as performing arts, conceptual art, and textile arts also involve aspects of visual arts as well as arts of other types. Also included within the visual arts are the applied arts such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design and decorative art.', 'Visual Arts Forum', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'visual-arts-forum', '', '', '2023-02-18 10:08:09', '2023-02-18 10:08:09', '', 13158, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13170', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13171, 1, '2023-02-18 10:08:09', '2023-02-18 10:08:09', 'The visual arts are art forms such as painting, drawing, printmaking, sculpture, ceramics, photography, video, filmmaking, design, crafts and architecture. Many artistic disciplines such as performing arts, conceptual art, and textile arts also involve aspects of visual arts as well as arts of other types. Also included within the visual arts are the applied arts such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design and decorative art.', 'Visual Arts Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13170-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 10:08:09', '2023-02-18 10:08:09', '', 13170, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13171', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13172, 1, '2023-02-18 10:24:54', '2023-02-18 10:24:54', 'History (derived from Ancient Greek ἱστορία (historía) \'inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation\') is the systematic study and documentation of human activity. The time period of events before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. \"History\" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these events. Historians seek knowledge of the past using historical sources such as written documents, oral accounts, art and material artifacts, and ecological markers. History is not complete and still has debatable mysteries.', 'History and Stories Forum', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'history-and-stories-forum', '', '', '2023-03-27 12:15:45', '2023-03-27 12:15:45', '', 13158, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13172', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13173, 1, '2023-02-18 10:24:54', '2023-02-18 10:24:54', 'History (derived from Ancient Greek ἱστορία (historía) \'inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation\') is the systematic study and documentation of human activity. The time period of events before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. \"History\" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these events. Historians seek knowledge of the past using historical sources such as written documents, oral accounts, art and material artifacts, and ecological markers. History is not complete and still has debatable mysteries.', 'History Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13172-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 10:24:54', '2023-02-18 10:24:54', '', 13172, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13173', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13174, 1, '2023-02-18 10:48:39', '2023-02-18 10:48:39', 'Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and written forms and may also be conveyed through sign languages. The vast majority of human languages have developed writing systems that allow for the recording and preservation of the sounds or signs of language. Human language is characterized by its cultural and historical diversity, with significant variations observed between cultures and across time.\r\n\r\nLinguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Linguistics is concerned with both the cognitive and social aspects of language. It is considered a scientific field as well as an academic discipline; it has been classified as a social science, natural science, cognitive science, or part of the humanities.', 'Languages and Linguistics Forum', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'languages-and-linguistics-forum', '', '', '2023-02-18 10:49:48', '2023-02-18 10:49:48', '', 13158, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13174', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13175, 1, '2023-02-18 10:48:39', '2023-02-18 10:48:39', 'Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and written forms and may also be conveyed through sign languages. The vast majority of human languages have developed writing systems that allow for the recording and preservation of the sounds or signs of language. Human language is characterized by its cultural and historical diversity, with significant variations observed between cultures and across time.\r\n\r\nLinguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Linguistics is concerned with both the cognitive and social aspects of language. It is considered a scientific field as well as an academic discipline; it has been classified as a social science, natural science, cognitive science, or part of the humanities.', 'Languages and Linguistics Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13174-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 10:48:39', '2023-02-18 10:48:39', '', 13174, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13175', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13176, 1, '2023-02-18 10:56:09', '2023-02-18 10:56:09', 'Law is a set of rules that are created and enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behaviour, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the art of justice. Law is also the field that concerns the creation and administration of laws, and includes any and all legal systems.', 'Law Forum', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'law-forum', '', '', '2023-02-18 10:56:09', '2023-02-18 10:56:09', '', 13158, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13176', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13177, 1, '2023-02-18 10:56:09', '2023-02-18 10:56:09', 'Law is a set of rules that are created and enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behaviour, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the art of justice. Law is also the field that concerns the creation and administration of laws, and includes any and all legal systems.', 'Law Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13176-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 10:56:09', '2023-02-18 10:56:09', '', 13176, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13177', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13178, 1, '2023-02-18 11:01:35', '2023-02-18 11:01:35', 'Philosophy (from Greek: φιλοσοφία, philosophia, \'love of wisdom\') is the processing of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language.', 'Philosophy Forum', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'philosophy-forum', '', '', '2023-02-18 11:01:35', '2023-02-18 11:01:35', '', 13158, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13178', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13179, 1, '2023-02-18 11:01:35', '2023-02-18 11:01:35', 'Philosophy (from Greek: φιλοσοφία, philosophia, \'love of wisdom\') is the processing of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language.', 'Philosophy Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13178-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 11:01:35', '2023-02-18 11:01:35', '', 13178, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13179', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13180, 1, '2023-02-18 11:17:18', '2023-02-18 11:17:18', 'Religious studies, also known as the study of religion, is an academic field devoted to research into religious beliefs, behaviours, and institutions. It describes, compares, interprets, and explains religion, emphasizing systematic, historically based, and cross-cultural perspectives.', 'Religious Studies Forum', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'religious-studies-forum', '', '', '2023-02-18 11:17:18', '2023-02-18 11:17:18', '', 13158, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13180', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13181, 1, '2023-02-18 11:17:18', '2023-02-18 11:17:18', 'Religious studies, also known as the study of religion, is an academic field devoted to research into religious beliefs, behaviours, and institutions. It describes, compares, interprets, and explains religion, emphasizing systematic, historically based, and cross-cultural perspectives.', 'Religious Studies Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13180-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 11:17:18', '2023-02-18 11:17:18', '', 13180, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13181', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13182, 1, '2023-02-18 11:21:18', '2023-02-18 11:21:18', 'Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the supernatural, but also deals with religious epistemology, asks and seeks to answer the question of revelation.', 'Theology Forum', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'theology-forum', '', '', '2023-02-18 11:21:18', '2023-02-18 11:21:18', '', 13158, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13182', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13183, 1, '2023-02-18 11:21:18', '2023-02-18 11:21:18', 'Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the supernatural, but also deals with religious epistemology, asks and seeks to answer the question of revelation.', 'Theology Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13182-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 11:21:18', '2023-02-18 11:21:18', '', 13182, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13183', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13184, 1, '2023-02-18 11:26:01', '2023-02-18 11:26:01', 'These are groups created by members.  <strong><a href=\"https://teachers.com.ng/groups/create/step/group-details/\">Create your group and forum here</a></strong>', 'MEMBERS’ (GROUP) FORUMS', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'group-forums', '', '', '2024-01-08 19:48:26', '2024-01-08 19:48:26', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/group-forums/', 25, 'forum', '', 0),
(13187, 1, '2023-02-18 16:49:48', '2023-02-18 16:49:48', 'These are groups created by members.  <strong><a href=\"https://teachers.com.ng/groups/create/step/group-details/\">Create your group and forum here</a></strong>', 'MEMBERS’ (GROUP) FORUMS', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13184-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-18 16:49:48', '2023-02-18 16:49:48', '', 13184, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13187', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(13192, 1, '2023-02-20 19:47:59', '2023-02-20 19:47:59', 'Teachers of Humanities', 'Teachers of Humanities Group', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13191-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-20 19:47:59', '2023-02-20 19:47:59', '', 13191, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13192', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13195, 1, '2023-02-21 02:21:52', '2023-02-21 02:21:52', 'Teachers of Social Science', 'Teachers of Social Science Group', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'teachers-of-social-science', '', '', '2023-02-21 02:25:46', '2023-02-21 02:25:46', '', 13184, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/group-forums/teachers-of-social-science/', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
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(13226, 1, '2023-02-22 20:00:06', '2023-02-22 20:00:06', 'A new member has been blocked :\n\n<blockquote><a href=\'{{yzbbm_report.blocker_url}}\'>{{yzbbm_report.blocker_displayname}}</a> Blocked <a href=\'{{yzbbm_report.blocked_url}}\'>{{yzbbm_report.blocked_displayname}}</a>{{yzbbm_report.block_reason}}</blockquote>\n\n<a href=\"{{{yzbbm_report.blocks_table}}}\">View Blocks Table</a> to take the appropriate action.', '[{{{site.name}}}] New Blocked Member', 'A new member has been blocked :\n\n\"{{yzbbm_report.blocker_displayname}} Blocked {{yzbbm_report.blocked_displayname}} {{yzbbm_report.block_reason}}\"\n\nGo to the blocks table to take the appropriate action: {{{yzbbm_report.blocks_table}}}', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'site-name-new-blocked-member', '', '', '2023-02-22 20:00:06', '2023-02-22 20:00:06', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=bp-email&p=13226', 0, 'bp-email', '', 0),
(13228, 1, '2023-02-23 17:45:12', '2023-02-23 17:45:12', '', 'Activity', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '5-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-23 17:45:12', '2023-02-23 17:45:12', '', 5, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13228', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(13231, 1, '2023-02-24 01:01:45', '2023-02-24 01:01:45', '<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Who we are</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>Our website address is: https://teachers.com.ng.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Comments</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>When visitors leave comments on the site we collect the data shown in the comments form, and also the visitor’s IP address and browser user agent string to help spam detection.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>An anonymized string created from your email address (also called a hash) may be provided to the Gravatar service to see if you are using it. The Gravatar service privacy policy is available here: https://automattic.com/privacy/. After approval of your comment, your profile picture is visible to the public in the context of your comment.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Media</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p><strong class=\"privacy-policy-tutorial\"> </strong>If you upload images to the website, you should avoid uploading images with embedded location data (EXIF GPS) included. Visitors to the website can download and extract any location data from images on the website.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Cookies</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>If you leave a comment on our site you may opt-in to saving your name, email address and website in cookies. These are for your convenience so that you do not have to fill in your details again when you leave another comment. These cookies will last for one year.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>If you visit our login page, we will set a temporary cookie to determine if your browser accepts cookies. This cookie contains no personal data and is discarded when you close your browser.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>When you log in, we will also set up several cookies to save your login information and your screen display choices. Login cookies last for two days, and screen options cookies last for a year. If you select \"Remember Me\", your login will persist for two weeks. If you log out of your account, the login cookies will be removed.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>If you edit or publish an article, an additional cookie will be saved in your browser. This cookie includes no personal data and simply indicates the post ID of the article you just edited. It expires after 1 day.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Embedded content from other websites</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>Articles on this site may include embedded content (e.g. videos, images, articles, etc.). Embedded content from other websites behaves in the exact same way as if the visitor has visited the other website.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>These websites may collect data about you, use cookies, embed additional third-party tracking, and monitor your interaction with that embedded content, including tracking your interaction with the embedded content if you have an account and are logged in to that website.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Who we share your data with</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>If you request a password reset, your IP address will be included in the reset email.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>How long we retain your data</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>If you leave a comment, the comment and its metadata are retained indefinitely. This is so we can recognize and approve any follow-up comments automatically instead of holding them in a moderation queue.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>For users that register on our website (if any), we also store the personal information they provide in their user profile. All users can see, edit, or delete their personal information at any time (except they cannot change their username). Website administrators can also see and edit that information.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>What rights do you have over your data?</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p><strong class=\"privacy-policy-tutorial\"> </strong>If you have an account on this site, or have left comments, you can request to receive an exported file of the personal data we hold about you, including any data you have provided to us. You can also request that we erase any personal data we hold about you. This does not include any data we are obliged to keep for administrative, legal, or security purposes.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:heading -->\r\n<h2>Where your data is sent</h2>\r\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\r\n\r\n<!-- wp:paragraph -->\r\n<p>Visitor comments may be checked through an automated spam detection service.</p>\r\n<!-- /wp:paragraph -->', 'Privacy Policy', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '3-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-24 01:01:45', '2023-02-24 01:01:45', '', 3, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13231', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13232, 1, '2023-02-24 02:39:33', '2023-02-24 02:39:33', '', 'Announcements', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'announcements', '', '', '2023-03-04 10:14:43', '2023-03-04 10:14:43', '', 13091, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13232', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13233, 1, '2023-02-24 02:39:33', '2023-02-24 02:39:33', '', 'Announcements', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13232-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:39:33', '2023-02-24 02:39:33', '', 13232, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13233', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13234, 1, '2023-02-24 02:42:35', '2023-02-24 02:42:35', 'Applied science includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine. Applied science is often contrasted with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena.\n\nApplied science can also apply formal science, such as statistics and probability theory, as in epidemiology. Genetic epidemiology is an applied science applying both biological and statistical methods. Applied science can also apply social science, such as application of psychology in applied psychology, criminology and law.', 'Applied science', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13166-autosave-v1', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:42:35', '2023-02-24 02:42:35', '', 13166, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13234', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13235, 1, '2023-02-24 02:43:13', '2023-02-24 02:43:13', 'Applied science includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine. Applied science often contrasts with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena.', 'Applied science', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13166-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:43:13', '2023-02-24 02:43:13', '', 13166, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13235', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13236, 1, '2023-02-24 02:45:35', '2023-02-24 02:45:35', 'A formal science is a branch of science studying disciplines concerned with abstract structures described by formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, information theory, game theory, systems theory, decision theory, and theoretical linguistics.', 'Formal Science', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13164-autosave-v1', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:45:35', '2023-02-24 02:45:35', '', 13164, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13236', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13237, 1, '2023-02-24 02:46:01', '2023-02-24 02:46:01', 'Formal science is a branch of science studying disciplines concerned with abstract structures described by formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, information theory, game theory, systems theory, decision theory, and theoretical linguistics.', 'Formal Science', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13164-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:46:01', '2023-02-24 02:46:01', '', 13164, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13237', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13238, 1, '2023-02-24 02:49:22', '2023-02-24 02:49:22', 'The humanities include the studies of foreign languages, history, philosophy, language arts (literature, writing, oratory, rhetoric, poetry, etc.), performing arts (theatre, music, dance, etc.), and visual arts (painting, sculpture, photography, filmmaking, etc.); culinary art or cookery is interdisciplinary and may be considered both a humanity and a science.', 'Humanities', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13158-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:49:22', '2023-02-24 02:49:22', '', 13158, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13238', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13239, 1, '2023-02-24 02:51:48', '2023-02-24 02:51:48', 'Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science.\n\nLife science is alternatively known as biology, and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics, chemistry, earth science, and astronomy. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements which can be explained as clear statements of the \"laws of nature\".', 'Natural Science', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13162-autosave-v1', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:51:48', '2023-02-24 02:51:48', '', 13162, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13239', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
INSERT INTO `teac_posts` (`ID`, `post_author`, `post_date`, `post_date_gmt`, `post_content`, `post_title`, `post_excerpt`, `post_status`, `comment_status`, `ping_status`, `post_password`, `post_name`, `to_ping`, `pinged`, `post_modified`, `post_modified_gmt`, `post_content_filtered`, `post_parent`, `guid`, `menu_order`, `post_type`, `post_mime_type`, `comment_count`) VALUES
(13240, 1, '2023-02-24 02:52:08', '2023-02-24 02:52:08', 'Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science.', 'Natural Science', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13162-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:52:08', '2023-02-24 02:52:08', '', 13162, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13240', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13241, 1, '2023-02-24 02:55:32', '2023-02-24 02:55:32', 'The humanities include the studies of foreign languages, history, philosophy, language arts (literature, writing, oratory, rhetoric, poetry, etc.), performing arts (theatre, music, dance, etc.), and visual arts (painting, sculpture, photography, filmmaking, etc.);', 'Humanities', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13158-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-02-24 02:55:32', '2023-02-24 02:55:32', '', 13158, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13241', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
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(13365, 1, '2023-03-04 08:42:45', '2023-03-04 08:42:45', 'Forum rules\nThanks for participating in Teachers’ Community forum. To ensure the best possible experience for all members, we have established some basic guidelines for participation.\n\nBy joining and using these Teachers’ Community forum, you agree that you have read and will follow the rules and guidelines set for these peer discussion groups. You also agree to reserve forum discussions for topics best suited to the medium. Teachers’ Community is a great medium with which to solicit the advice of your peers, benefit from their experience, and participate in an ongoing conversation.\n\nPlease take a moment to acquaint yourself with these important guidelines. To preserve a climate that encourages both civil and fruitful dialogue, Teachers’ Community reserves the right to suspend or terminate membership on all forum for members who violate these rules.\n\nTHE RULES\nDon’t challenge or attack others. The discussions on the Teachers’ Community forum are meant to stimulate conversation, not to create contention. Let others have their say, just as you may.\n\nDon’t post commercial messages. Contact people directly with product and service information if you believe it would help them.\n\nAll defamatory, abusive, profane, threatening, offensive, or illegal materials are strictly prohibited. Do not post anything in a post message that you would not want the world to see or that you would not want anyone to know came from you.\n\nPlease note carefully all items posted in the disclaimer and legal rules below, particularly regarding the copyright ownership of information posted to the topic.\n\nRemember that Teachers’ Community and other forum participants have the right to reproduce postings to this forum.\n\nSend your message only to the most appropriate topic(s). Do not spam several topics with the same message.\n\nInclude a signature tag on all messages. Include your name, affiliation, location, and e-mail address.\n\nState concisely and clearly the topic of your comments in the subject line. This allows members to respond more appropriately to your posting and makes it easier for members to search the archives by subject.\n\nInclude only the relevant portions of the original message in your reply. Delete any header information and put your response before the original posting.\nStay on topic. When creating a new discussion thread, give a clear topic title and put your post in the appropriate category. When contributing to an existing discussion, try to stay \'on topic\'. If something new comes up within a topic that you would like to discuss, start a new thread.\nShare your knowledge. Don\'t hold back in sharing your knowledge – it\'s likely someone will find it useful or interesting. When you give information, provide your sources.\nOnly send a message to the entire forum when it contains information that can benefit everyone.\nDo not send messages such as “thanks for the information” or “me, too”  to the entire forum. Send such messages only to individuals.\nUse the Web interface to change your settings or to remove yourself from a topic. If you are changing e-mail addresses, you do not need to remove yourself from the forum and rejoin under your new e-mail address. Simply change your settings.\nWarn other topic subscribers of lengthy messages either in the subject line or at the beginning of the message body with a line that says “Long Message.”\n\nTeachers’ Community maintains the rights to remove posts and threads to ensure that material posted in the discussion forums is not potentially harmful. For this reason, we may edit or choose not to publish any post, that:\n\ncontains disrespectful or derogatory remarks about any person\ncontains advice or content that we believe is damaging, unhelpful or distressing to others\ncontains swearing or offensive language, is nonsensical and/or irrelevant\npromotes personal beliefs in a way that is disrespectful of the choices of others\nis racist, sexist, homophobic, sexually explicit or suggestive, abusive or otherwise discriminatory or objectionable', 'Forum Rules and Regulations', '', 'closed', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'forum-rules-and-regulations', '', '', '2023-03-04 08:42:45', '2023-03-04 08:42:45', '', 13232, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/topic/forum-rules-and-regulations/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13366, 21, '2023-03-04 09:44:11', '2023-03-04 09:44:11', '1. The Environment as Directive.\nWe now pass to one of the special forms which the general function of education assumes: namely, that of direction, control, or guidance. Of these three words, direction, control, and guidance, the last best conveys the idea of assisting through cooperation the natural capacities of the individuals guided; control conveys rather the notion of energy brought to bear from without and meeting some resistance from the one controlled; direction is a more neutral term and suggests the fact that the active tendencies of those directed are led in a certain continuous course, instead of dispersing aimlessly. Direction expresses the basic function, which tends at one extreme to become a guiding assistance and at another, a regulation or ruling. But in any case, we must carefully avoid a meaning sometimes read into the term \"control.\" It is sometimes assumed, explicitly or unconsciously, that an individual\'s tendencies are naturally purely individualistic or egoistic, and thus antisocial. Control then denotes the process by which he is brought to subordinate his natural impulses to public or common ends. Since, by conception, his own nature is quite alien to this process and opposes it rather than helps it, control has in this view a flavour of coercion or compulsion about it. Systems of government and theories of the state have been built upon this notion, and it has seriously affected educational ideas and practices. But there is no ground for any such view. Individuals are certainly interested, at times, in having their own way, and their own way may go contrary to the ways of others. But they are also interested, and chiefly interested upon the whole, in entering into the activities of others and taking part in conjoint and cooperative doings. Otherwise, no such thing as a community would be possible. And there would not even be anyone interested in furnishing the policeman to keep a semblance of harmony unless he thought that thereby he could gain some personal advantage. Control, in truth, means only an emphatic form of the direction of powers, and covers the regulation gained by an individual through his own efforts quite as much as that brought about when others take the lead.\n\nIn general, every stimulus directs activity. It does not simply excite it or stir it up but directs it toward an object. Put the other way around, a response is not just a reaction, a protest, as it were, against being disturbed; it is, as the word indicates, an answer. It meets the stimulus and corresponds with it. There is an adaptation of the stimulus and response to each other. Light is the stimulus to the eye to see something, and the business of the eye is to see. If the eyes are open and there is light, seeing occurs; the stimulus is but a condition of the fulfilment of the proper function of the organ, not an outside interruption. To some extent, then, all direction or control is a guiding of activity to its own end; it is an assistance in doing fully what some organ is already tending to do.\n\nThis general statement needs, however, to be qualified in two respects. In the first place, except in the case of a small number of instincts, the stimuli to which an immature human being is subject are not sufficiently definite to call out, in the beginning, specific responses. There is always a great deal of superfluous energy aroused. This energy may be wasted, going aside from the point; it may also go against the successful performance of an act. It does harm by getting in the way. Compare the behaviour of a beginner in riding a bicycle with that of an expert. There is a little axis of direction in the energies put forth; they are largely dispersive and centrifugal. Direction involves focusing and fixating on an action in order that it may be truly a response, and this requires the elimination of unnecessary and confusing movements. In the second place, although no activity can be produced in which the person does not cooperate to some extent, a response may be of a kind which does not fit into the sequence and continuity of action. A person boxing may dodge a particular blow successfully, but in such a way as to expose himself the next instant to a still harder blow. Adequate control means that the successive acts are brought into a continuous order; each act not only meets its immediate stimulus but helps the acts which follow.\n\nIn short, the direction is both simultaneous and successive. At a given time, it requires that, from all the tendencies that are partially called out, those be selected that centre energy upon the point of need. Successively, it requires that each act be balanced with those which precede and come after so that order of activity is achieved. Focusing and ordering are thus the two aspects of direction, one spatial, the other temporal. The first insures hitting the mark; the second keeps the balance required for further action. Obviously, it is not possible to separate them in practice as we have distinguished them in the idea. The activity must be centred at a given time in such a way as to prepare for what comes next. The problem of the immediate response is complicated by one\'s having to be on the lookout for future occurrences.\n\nTwo conclusions emerge from these general statements. On the one hand, the purely external direction is impossible. The environment can at most only supply stimuli to call out responses. These responses proceed from tendencies already possessed by the individual. Even when a person is frightened by threats into doing something, the threats work only because the person has an instinct of fear. If he has not, or if, though having it, it is under his own control, the threat has no more influence upon him than light has in causing a person to see who has no eyes. While the customs and rules of adults furnish stimuli which direct as well as evoke the activities of the young, the young, after all, participate in the direction in which their actions finally take. In the strict sense, nothing can be forced upon them or into them. To overlook this fact means to distort and pervert human nature. To consider the contribution made by the existing instincts and habits of those directed is to direct them economically and wisely. Speaking accurately, all direction is but re-direction; it shifts the activities already going on into another channel. Unless one is cognizant of the energies which are already in operation, one\'s attempts at direction will almost surely go amiss.\n\nOn the other hand, the control afforded by the customs and regulations of others may be short-sighted. It may accomplish its immediate effect but at the expense of throwing the subsequent action of the person out of balance. A threat may, for example, prevent a person from doing something to which he is naturally inclined by arousing fear of disagreeable consequences if he persists. But he may be left in a position which exposes him later on to influences, which will lead him to do even worse things. His instincts of cunning and slyness may be aroused so that things henceforth appeal to him on the side of evasion and trickery more than would otherwise have been the case. Those engaged in directing the actions of others are always in danger of overlooking the importance of the sequential development of those they direct.\n\n2. Modes of Social Direction. Adults are naturally most conscious of directing the conduct of others when they are immediately aiming so to do. As a rule, they have such an aim consciously when they find themselves resisted; when others are doing things they do not wish them to do. But the more permanent and influential modes of control are those which operate from moment to moment continuously without such deliberate intention on our part.\n\n1. When others are not doing what we would like them to or are threatening disobedience, we are most conscious of the need of controlling them and of the influences by which they are controlled. In such cases, our control becomes most direct, and at this point, we are most likely to make the mistakes just spoken of. We are even likely to take the influence of superior force for control, forgetting that while we may lead a horse to water we cannot make him drink; and that while we can shut a man up in a penitentiary we cannot make him penitent. In all such cases of immediate action upon others, we need to discriminate between physical results and moral results. A person may be in such a condition that forcible feeding or enforced confinement is necessary for his own good. A child may have to be snatched with roughness away from a fire so that he shall not be burnt. But no improvement of disposition, no educative effect, need follow. A harsh and commanding tone may be effectual in keeping a child away from the fire, and the same desirable physical effect will follow as if he had been snatched away. But there may be no more obedience of a moral sort in one case than in the other. A man can be prevented from breaking into other persons\' houses by shutting him up, but shutting him up may not alter his disposition to commit burglary. When we confuse a physical with an educative result, we always lose the chance of enlisting the person\'s own participating disposition in getting the result desired, and thereby developing within him an intrinsic and persisting direction in the right way.\n\nIn general, the occasion for the more conscious acts of control should be limited to acts which are so instinctive or impulsive that the one performing them has no means of foreseeing their outcome. If a person cannot foresee the consequences of his act and is not capable of understanding what he is told about its outcome by those with more experience, it is impossible for him to guide his act intelligently. In such a state, every act is similar to him. Whatever moves him does move him, and that is all there is to it. In some cases, it is well to permit him to experiment, and to discover the consequences for himself in order that he may act intelligently next time under similar circumstances. But some courses of action are too discommoding and obnoxious to others to allow of this course to be pursued. Direct disapproval is now resorted to. Shaming, ridicule, disfavour, rebuke, and punishment are used. Or contrary tendencies in the child are appealed to divert him from his troublesome line of behaviour. His sensitiveness to approbation, and his hope of winning favour by an agreeable act, are made use of to induce action in another direction.', 'Education as Direction', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'education-as-direction', '', '', '2023-03-04 09:44:11', '2023-03-04 09:44:11', '', 13250, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/topic/education-as-direction/', 0, 'topic', '', 0);
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(13367, 21, '2023-03-04 09:55:15', '2023-03-04 09:55:15', '2. These methods of control are so obvious (because so intentionally employed) that it would hardly be worthwhile to mention them if it were not that notice may now be taken, by way of contrast, of the other more important and permanent mode of control. This other method resides in the ways in which persons, with whom the immature being is associated, use things; the instrumentalities with which they accomplish their own ends. The very existence of the social medium in which an individual lives, moves, and has his being is the standing effective agency of directing his activity.\n\nThis fact makes it necessary for us to examine in greater detail what is meant by the social environment. We are given to separate from each other in the physical and social environments in which we live. The separation is responsible on one hand for an exaggeration of the moral importance of the more direct or personal modes of control of which we have been speaking; and on the other hand for an exaggeration, in current psychology and philosophy, of the intellectual possibilities of contact with a purely physical environment. There is not, in fact, any such thing as the direct influence of one human being on another apart from the use of the physical environment as an intermediary. A smile, a frown, a rebuke, a word of warning or encouragement, all involve some physical change. Otherwise, the attitude of one would not get over to alter the attitude of another. Comparatively speaking, such modes of influence may be regarded as personal. The physical medium is reduced to a mere means of personal contact. In contrast with such direct modes of mutual influence, stand associations in common pursuits involving the use of things as means and as measures of results. Even if the mother never told her daughter to help her, or never rebuked her for not helping, the child would be subjected to the direction in her activities by the mere fact that she was engaged, along with the parent, in the household life. Imitation, emulation, and the need of working together enforce control.\n\nIf the mother hands the child something needed, the latter must reach the thing in order to get it. Where there is giving there must be taking. The way the child handles the thing after it is got, the use to which it is put, is surely influenced by the fact that the child has watched the mother. When the child sees the parent looking for something, it is as natural for it also to look for the object and to give it over when it finds it, as it was, under other circumstances, to receive it. Multiply such an instance by the thousand details of daily intercourse, and one has a picture of the most permanent and enduring method of giving direction to the activities of the young.\n\nIn saying this, we are only repeating what was said previously about participating in a joint activity as the chief way of forming disposition. We have explicitly added, however, the recognition of the part played in the joint activity by the use of things. The philosophy of learning has been unduly dominated by false psychology. It is frequently <a href=\"/forums/forum/topic/learning-outcome-benchmarks-for-primary-education-in-lagos-state/\" title=\"Learning Outcome Benchmarks For Primary Education in Lagos State\">stated that a person learns</a> by merely having the qualities of things impressed upon his mind through the gateway of the senses. Having received a store of sensory impressions, association or some power of mental synthesis is supposed to combine them into ideas—into things with a meaning. An object, stone, orange, tree, or chair, is supposed to convey different impressions of colour, shape, size, hardness, smell, taste, etc., which aggregated together constitute the characteristic meaning of each thing. But as matter of fact, it is the characteristic use to which the thing is put, because of its specific qualities, which supply the meaning with which it is identified. A chair is a thing which is put to one use; a table, a thing which is employed for another purpose; orange is a thing which costs so much, which is grown in warm climes, which is eaten, and when eaten has an agreeable odour and refreshing taste, etc.\n\nThe difference between an adjustment to a physical stimulus and a mental act is that the latter involves a response to a thing in its meaning; the former does not. A noise may make me jump without my mind being implicated. When I hear a noise and run and get water and put out a blaze, I respond intelligently; the sound meant fire, and fire meant the need of being extinguished. I bump into a stone and kick it to one side purely physically. I put it to one side for fear someone will stumble upon it, but intelligently; I respond to a meaning that the thing has. I am startled by a thunderclap whether I recognize it or not—more likely if I do not recognize it. But if I say, either out loud or to myself, that is thunder, I respond to the disturbance as a meaning. My behaviour has a mental quality. When things have a meaning for us, we mean (intend, propose) what we do: when they do not, we act blindly, unconsciously, and unintelligently.\n\nIn both kinds of responsive adjustment, our activities are directed or controlled. But in the merely blind response, the direction is also blind. There may be training, but there is no education. Repeated responses to recurrent stimuli may fix a habit of acting in a certain way. We all have many habits of whose import we are quite unaware since they were formed without our knowing what we were about. Consequently, they possess us, rather than them. They move us; they control us. Unless we become aware of what they accomplish and pass judgment upon the worth of the result, we do not control them. A child might be made to bow every time he met a certain person by pressure on his neck muscles, and bowing would finally become automatic. It would not, however, be an act of recognition or deference on his part, till he did it with a certain end in view—as having a certain meaning. And not till he knew what he was about and performed the act for the sake of its meaning could he be said to be \"brought up\" or educated to act in a certain way. To have an idea of a thing is thus not just to get certain sensations from it. It is to be able to respond to the thing in view of its place in an inclusive scheme of action; it is to foresee the drift and probable consequence of the action of the thing upon us and of our action upon it. To have the same ideas about things which others have, to be like-minded with them, and thus to be really members of a social group, is, therefore, to attach the same meanings to things and to acts which others attach. Otherwise, there is no common understanding and no community life. But in a shared activity, each person refers to what he is doing to what the other is doing and vice-versa. That is, the activity of each is placed in the same inclusive situation. To pull at a rope at which others happen to be pulling is not a shared or conjoint activity unless the pulling is done with the knowledge that others are pulling and for the sake of either helping or hindering what they are doing. A pin may pass in the course of its manufacture through the hands of many persons. But each may do his part without knowledge of what others do or without any reference to what they do; each may operate simply for the sake of a separate result—his own pay.\nThere is, in this case, no common consequence to which the several acts are referred, and hence no genuine intercourse or association, in spite of juxtaposition, and in spite of the fact that their respective doings contribute to a single outcome. But if each views the consequences of his own acts as having a bearing upon what others are doing and takes into account the consequences of their behaviour upon himself, then there is a common mind; a common intent in behaviour. There is an understanding set up between the different contributors; and this common understanding controls the action of each. Suppose that conditions were so arranged that one person automatically caught a ball and then threw it to another person who caught and automatically returned it; and that each so acted without knowing where the ball came from or went to. Clearly, such action would be without point or meaning. It might be physically controlled, but it would not be socially directed. But suppose that each becomes aware of what the other is doing, and becomes interested in the other\'s action and thereby interested in what he is doing himself as connected with the action of the other. The behaviour of each would then be intelligent; socially intelligent and guided. Take one more example of a less imaginary kind. An infant is hungry and cries while food is prepared in his presence. If he does not connect his own state with what others are doing, nor what they are doing with his own satisfaction, he simply reacts with increasing impatience to his own increasing discomfort. He is physically controlled by his own organic state. But when he makes a back-and-forth reference his whole attitude changes. He takes an interest, as we say; he takes notes and watches what others are doing. He no longer reacts just to his own hunger but behaves in the light of what others are doing for their prospective satisfaction. In that way, he also no longer just gives way to hunger without knowing it, but he notes, recognizes, or identifies his own state. It becomes an object for him. His attitude toward it becomes to some degree intelligent. And in such noting of the meaning of the actions of others and of his own state, he is socially directed.\n\nIt will be recalled that our main proposition had two sides. One of them has now been dealt with: namely, that physical things do not influence the mind (or form ideas and beliefs) except as they are implicated in action for prospective consequences. The other point is persons modify one another\'s dispositions only through the unique use they make of physical conditions. Consider first the case of so-called expressive movements to which others are sensitive; blushing, smiling, frowning, clinching of fists, and natural gestures of all kinds. In themselves, these are not expressive. They are organic parts of a person\'s attitude. One does not blush to show modesty or embarrassment to others, but because the capillary circulation alters in response to stimuli. But others use the blush, or a slightly perceptible tightening of the muscles of a person with whom they are associated, as a sign of the state in which that person finds himself, and as an indication of what course to pursue. The frown signifies an imminent rebuke for which one must prepare, or an uncertainty and hesitation which one must, if possible, remove by saying or doing something to restore confidence. A man at some distance is waving his arms wildly. One has only to preserve an attitude of detached indifference, and the motions of the other person will be on the level of any remote physical change which we happen to note. If we have no concern or interest, the waving of the arms is as meaningless to us as the gyrations of the arms of a windmill. But if interest is aroused, we begin to participate. We refer to his action to something we are doing ourselves or that we should do. We have to judge the meaning of his act in order to decide what to do. Is he beckoning for help? Is he warning us of an explosion to be set off, against which we should guard ourselves? In one case, his action means to run toward him; in the other case, to run away. In any case, it is the change he effects in the physical environment which is a sign to us of how we should conduct ourselves. Our action is socially controlled because we endeavour to refer what we are to do to the same situation in which he is acting.\n\nLanguage is, as we have already seen (ante, p. 15) a case of this joint reference of our own action and that of another to a common situation. Hence its unrivalled significance as a means of social direction. But language would not be this efficacious instrument were it not that it takes place upon a background of coarser and more tangible use of physical means to accomplish results. A child sees persons with whom he lives using chairs, hats, tables, spades, saws, ploughs, horses, and money in certain ways. If he has any share at all in what they are doing, he is led thereby to use things in the same way or to use other things in a way which will fit in. If a chair is drawn up to a table, it is a sign that he is to sit in it; if a person extends his right hand, he is to extend his; and so on in a never-ending stream of detail. The prevailing habits of using the products of human art and the raw materials of nature constitute by all odds the deepest and most pervasive mode of social control. When children go to school, they already have \"minds\"—they have knowledge and dispositions of judgment which may be appealed to through the use of language. But these \"minds\" are the organized habits of intelligent response which they have previously required by putting things to use in connection with the way other persons use things. The control is inescapable; it saturates disposition. The net outcome of the discussion is that the fundamental means of control is not personal but intellectual. It is not \"moral\" in the sense that a person is moved by a direct personal appeal from others, important as is this method at critical junctures. It consists of the habits of understanding, which are set up in using objects in correspondence with others, whether by way of cooperation and assistance or rivalry and competition. Mind as a concrete thing is precisely the power to understand things in terms of the use made of them; a socialized mind is the power to understand them in terms of the use to which they are turned in joint or shared situations. And mind in this sense is the method of social control.', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13367', '', '', '2023-04-23 17:56:14', '2023-04-23 17:56:14', '', 13366, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/reply/13367/', 1, 'reply', '', 0),
(13368, 21, '2023-03-04 10:02:20', '2023-03-04 10:02:20', '3. Imitation and Social Psychology. We have already noted the defects of a psychology of learning which places the individual mind naked, as it were, in contact with physical objects, and which believes that knowledge, ideas, and beliefs accrue from their interaction. Only comparatively recently has the predominating influence of association with fellow beings in the formation of mental and moral disposition been perceived. Even now it is usually treated as a kind of adjunct to an alleged method of learning by direct contact with things, and as merely supplementing knowledge of the physical world with knowledge of persons. The purport of our discussion is that such a view makes an absurd and impossible separation between persons and things. Interaction with things may form habits of external adjustment. But it leads to activity having a meaning and conscious intent only when things are used to produce a result. And the only way one person can modify the mind of another is by using physical conditions, crude or artificial, so as to evoke some answering activity from him. Such are our two main conclusions. It is desirable to amplify and enforce them by placing them in contrast with the theory which uses a psychology of supposed direct relationships of human beings to one another as an adjunct to the psychology of the supposed direct relation of an individual to physical objects. In substance, this so-called social psychology has been built upon the notion of imitation. Consequently, we shall discuss the nature and role of imitation in the formation of mental disposition.\n\nAccording to this theory, social control of individuals rests upon the instinctive tendency of individuals to imitate or copy the actions of others. The latter serve as models. The imitative instinct is so strong that the young devote themselves to conforming to the patterns set by others and reproducing them in their own scheme of behaviour. According to our theory, what is here called imitation is a misleading name for partaking with others in the use of things which lead to consequences of common interest. The basic error in the current notion of imitation is that it puts the cart before the horse. It takes an effect for the cause of the effect. There can be no doubt that individuals forming a social group are like-minded; they understand one another. They tend to act with the same controlling ideas, beliefs, and intentions, given similar circumstances. Looked at from without, they might be said to be engaged in \"imitating\" one another. In the sense that they are doing much the same sort of thing in much the same sort of way, this would be true enough. But \"imitation\" throws no light upon why they so act; it repeats the fact as an explanation of itself. It is an explanation of the same order as the famous saying that opium puts men to sleep because of its dormitive power.\n\nAn objective likeness of acts and the mental satisfaction found in being in conformity with others are baptized by the name imitation. This social fact is then taken as a psychological force, which produced the likeness. A considerable portion of what is called imitation is simply the fact that persons being alike in structure respond in the same way to like stimuli. Quite independently of imitation, men on being insulted get angry and attack the insulter. This statement may be met by citing the undoubted fact that response to an insult takes place in different ways in groups having different customs. In one group, it may be met by recourse to fisticuffs, in another by a challenge to a duel, and in a third by an exhibition of contemptuous disregard. This happens, so it is said that the model set for imitation is different. But there is no need to appeal to imitation. The mere fact that customs are different means that the actual stimuli to behaviour are different. Conscious instruction plays a part; prior approvals and disapprovals have a large influence. Still more effective is the fact that unless an individual acts in the way current in his group, he is literally out of it. He can associate with others on intimate and equal terms only by behaving in the way in which they behave. The pressure that comes from the fact that one is let into the group action by acting in one way and shut out by acting in another way is unremitting. What is called the effect of imitation is mainly the product of conscious instruction and of the selective influence exercised by the unconscious confirmations and ratifications of those with whom one associate.\n\nSuppose that someone rolls a ball to a child; he catches it and rolls it back, and the game goes on. Here the stimulus is not just the sight of the ball or the sight of the other rolling it. It is the situation—the game which is playing. The response is not merely rolling the ball back; it is rolling it back so that the other one may catch and return it,—that the game may continue. The \"pattern\" or model is not the action of the other person. The whole situation requires that each should adapt his action in view of what the other person has done and is to do. Imitation may come in but its role is subordinate. The child has an interest in his own account; he wants to keep it going. He may then note how the other person catches and holds the ball in order to improve his own acts. He imitates the means of doing, not the end or thing to be done. And he imitates the means because he wishes, on his own behalf, as part of his own initiative, to take an effective part in the game. One has only to consider how completely the child is dependent from his earliest days for the successful execution of his purposes upon fitting his acts into those of others to see what a premium is put upon behaving as others behave, and of developing an understanding of them in order that he may so behave. The pressure for likemindedness in action from this source is so great that it is quite superfluous to appeal to imitation. As matter of fact, imitation of ends, as distinct from imitation of means which help to reach ends, is a superficial and transitory affair which leaves little effect upon disposition. Idiots are especially apt at this kind of imitation; it affects outward acts but not the meaning of their performance. When we find children engaging in this sort of mimicry, instead of encouraging them (as we would do if it were an important means of social control) we are more likely to rebuke them as apes, monkeys, parrots, or copycats. Imitation of means of accomplishment is, on the other hand, an intelligent act. It involves close observation and judicious selection of what will enable one to do better something which he already is trying to do. Used for a purpose, the imitative instinct may, like any other instinct, become a factor in the development of effective action.\n\nThis excursus should, accordingly, have the effect of reinforcing the conclusion that genuine social control means the formation of a certain mental disposition; a way of understanding objects, events, and acts which enables one to participate effectively in associated activities. Only the friction engendered by meeting resistance from others leads to the view that it takes place by forcing a line of action contrary to natural inclinations. Only failure to take account of the situations in which persons are mutually concerned (or interested in acting responsively to one another) leads to treating imitation as the chief agent in promoting social control.', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13368', '', '', '2023-04-23 17:56:12', '2023-04-23 17:56:12', '', 13366, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/reply/13368/', 2, 'reply', '', 0),
(13369, 21, '2023-03-04 10:07:13', '2023-03-04 10:07:13', '4. Some Applications to Education. Why does a savage group perpetuate savagery and a civilized group civilization? Doubtless, the first answer to occur to mind is that savages are savages; being of low-grade intelligence and perhaps defective moral sense. But the careful study has made it doubtful whether their native capacities are appreciably inferior to those of civilized man. It has made it certain that native differences are not sufficient to account for the difference in culture. In a sense, the mind of savage peoples is an effect, rather than a cause, of their backward institutions. Their social activities are such as to restrict their objects of attention and interest, and hence to limit the stimuli to mental development. Even as regards the objects that come within the scope of attention, primitive social customs tend to arrest observation and imagination upon qualities which do not fructify in the mind. Lack of control of natural forces means that a scant number of natural objects enter into associated behaviour. Only a small number of natural resources are utilized and they are not worked for what they are worth. The advance of civilization means that a larger number of natural forces and objects have been transformed into instrumentalities of action, into means for securing ends. We start not so much with superior capacities as with superior stimuli for the evocation and direction of our capacities. The savage deals largely with crude stimuli; we have weighted stimuli. Prior human efforts have been made over natural conditions. As they originally existed they were indifferent to human endeavours. Every domesticated plant and animal, every tool, every utensil, every appliance, every manufactured article, every esthetic decoration, and every work of art means a transformation of conditions once hostile or indifferent to characteristic human activities into friendly and favouring conditions. Because the activities of children today are controlled by these selected and charged stimuli, children are able to traverse in a short lifetime what the race has needed slow, tortured ages to attain. The dice have been loaded by all the successes which have preceded them.\n\nStimuli conducive to economical and effective response, such as our system of roads and means of transportation, our ready command of heat, light, and electricity, and our ready-made machines and apparatus for every purpose, do not, by themselves or in their aggregate, constitute a civilization. But the uses to which they are put are civilization, and without the things, the uses would be impossible. Time otherwise necessarily devoted to wresting a livelihood from a grudging environment and securing precarious protection against its inclemencies is freed. A body of knowledge is transmitted, the legitimacy of which is guaranteed by the fact that the physical equipment in which it is incarnated leads to results that square with the other facts of nature. Thus these appliances of art supply protection, perhaps our chief protection, against a recrudescence of these superstitious beliefs, those fanciful myths and infertile imaginings about nature in which so much of the best intellectual power of the past has been spent. If we add one other factor, namely, that such appliances be not only used but used in the interests of a truly shared or associated life, then the appliances become the positive resources of civilization. If Greece, with a scant tithe of our material resources, achieved a worthy and noble intellectual and artistic career, it is because Greece operated for social ends such resources as it had. But whatever the situation, whether one of barbarism or civilization, whether one of stinted control of physical forces or of partial enslavement to a mechanism not yet made tributary to a shared experience, things as they enter into action furnish the educative conditions of daily life and direct the formation of mental and moral disposition.\n\nIntentional education signifies, as we have already seen, a specially selected environment, the selection being made on the basis of materials and methods specifically promoting growth in the desired direction. Since language represents the physical conditions that have been subjected to the maximum transformation in the interests of social life—physical things which have lost their original quality in becoming social tools—it is appropriate that language should play a large part compared with other appliances. By it we are led to share vicariously in past human experiences, thus widening and enriching the experience of the present. We are enabled, symbolically and imaginatively, to anticipate situations. In countless ways, language condenses meanings that record social outcomes and presage social outlooks. So significant is it of a liberal share in what is worthwhile in life that unlettered and uneducated have become almost synonymous.\n\nThe emphasis in school on this particular tool has, however, its dangers—dangers which are not theoretical but exhibited in practice. Why is it, in spite of the fact that teaching by pouring in, and learning by passive absorption, are universally condemned, that they are still so entrenched in practice? That education is not an affair of \"telling\" and being told, but an active and constructive process is a principle almost as generally violated in practice as conceded in theory. Is not this a deplorable situation due to the fact that the doctrine is itself merely told? It is preached; it is lectured; it is written about. But its enactment into practice requires that the school environment be equipped with agencies for doing, with tools and physical materials, to an extent rarely attained. It requires that methods of instruction and administration be modified to allow and to secure direct and continuous occupations with things. Not that the use of language as an educational resource should lessen; but that its use should be more vital and fruitful by having its normal connection with shared activities. \"These things ought ye to have done, and not to have left the others undone.\" And for the school \"these things\" mean equipment with the instrumentalities of cooperative or joint activity.\n\nFor when the schools depart from the educational conditions effective in the out-of-school environment, they necessarily substitute a bookish, pseudo-intellectual spirit for a social spirit. Children doubtless go to school to learn, but it has yet to be proved that learning occurs most adequately when it is made a separate conscious business. When treating it as a business of this sort tends to preclude the social sense which comes from sharing in an activity of common concern and value, the effort at isolated intellectual learning contradicts its own aim. We may secure motor activity and sensory excitation by keeping an individual by himself, but we cannot thereby get him to understand the meaning that things have in the life of which he is a part. We may secure technical specialized ability in algebra, Latin, or botany, but not the kind of intelligence which directs ability to useful ends. Only by engaging in a joint activity, where one person\'s use of material and tools is consciously referred to as the use other persons are making of their capacities and appliances, is a social direction of disposition attained.', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13369', '', '', '2023-04-23 17:56:11', '2023-04-23 17:56:11', '', 13366, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/reply/13369/', 3, 'reply', '', 0),
(13370, 19, '2023-03-04 11:07:48', '2023-03-04 11:07:48', ' We have laid it down that the educative process is a continuous process of growth, having as its aim at every stage an added capacity for growth. This conception contrasts sharply with other ideas which have influenced practice. By making the contrast explicit, the meaning of the conception will be brought more clearly to light. The first contrast is with the idea that education is a process of preparation or getting ready. What is to be prepared for is, of course, the responsibilities and privileges of adult life. Children are not regarded as social members in full and regular standing. They are looked upon as candidates; they are placed on the waiting list. \n\nThe conception is only carried a little further when the life of adults is considered as not having meaning on its own account, but as a preparatory probation for \"another life.\" The idea is but another form of the notion of the negative and privative character of growth already criticized; hence we shall not repeat the criticisms, but pass on to the evil consequences which flow from putting education on this basis. In the first place, it involves a loss of impetus. Motive power is not utilized. Children proverbially live in the present; that is not only a fact not to be evaded, but it is excellence. The future just as the future lacks urgency and body. To get ready for something, one knows not what nor why, is to throw away the leverage that exists, and to seek motive power in a vague chance. Under such circumstances, there is, in the second place, a premium put on shilly-shallying and procrastination. \n\nThe future prepared for is a long way off; plenty of time will intervene before it becomes a present. Why be in a hurry about getting ready for it? The temptation to postpone is much increased because the present offers so many wonderful opportunities and proffers such invitations to adventure. Naturally, attention and energy go to them; <a href=\"/forums/forum/topic/learning-outcome-benchmarks-for-primary-education-in-lagos-state/\" title=\"Learning Outcome Benchmarks For Primary Education in Lagos State\">education accrues naturally as an outcome</a>, but a lesser education than if the full stress of effort had been put upon making conditions as educative as possible. A third undesirable result is the substitution of a conventional average standard of expectation and requirement for a standard which concerns the specific powers of the individual under instruction. For a severe and definite judgment based upon the strong and weak points of the individual is substituted a vague and wavering opinion concerning what youth may be expected, upon the average, to become in some more or less remote future; say, at the end of the year, when promotions are to take place, or by the time they are ready to go to college or to enter upon what, in contrast with the probationary stage, is regarded as the serious business of life. It is impossible to overestimate the loss which results from the deflection of attention from the strategic point to a comparatively unproductive point. It fails most just where it thinks it is succeeding—in getting prepared for the future.\n\nFinally, the principle of preparation makes necessary recourse on a large scale to the use of adventitious motives of pleasure and pain. The future has no stimulating and directing power when severed from the possibilities of the present, something must be hitched onto it to make it work. Promises of reward and threats of pain are employed. Healthy work, done for present reasons and as a factor in living, is largely unconscious. The stimulus resides in the situation with which one is actually confronted. \n\nBut when this situation is ignored, pupils have to be told that if they do not follow the prescribed course penalties will accrue; while if they do, they may expect, some time in the future, rewards for their present sacrifices. Everybody knows how largely systems of punishment have had to be resorted to by educational systems which neglect present possibilities in behalf of preparation for a future. Then, in disgust with the harshness and impotency of this method, the pendulum swings to the opposite extreme, and the dose of information required against some later day is sugar-coated, so that pupils may be fooled into taking something which they do not care for.\n\nIt is not of course a question of whether education should prepare for the future. If education is growth, it must progressively realize present possibilities, and thus make individuals better fitted to cope with later requirements. Growing is not something which is completed in odd moments; it is a continuous leading factor into the future. If the environment, in school and out, supplies conditions which utilize adequately the present capacities of the immature, the future which grows out of the present is surely taken care of. The mistake is not in attaching importance to preparation for future needs, but in making it the mainspring of present effort. Because the need for preparation for a continually developing life is great, it is imperative that every energy should be bent on making the present experience as rich and significant as possible. Then as the present merges insensibly into the future, the future is taken care of.', 'Education is a Preparation for the Life of the Children', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'education-is-a-preparation-for-the-life-of-the-children', '', '', '2023-04-23 14:35:56', '2023-04-23 14:35:56', '', 13250, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/topic/education-is-a-preparation-for-the-life-of-the-children/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13371, 19, '2023-03-04 11:27:23', '2023-03-04 11:27:23', '2. Education as Unfolding. There is a conception of education which professes to be based upon the idea of development. But it takes back with one hand what it proffers with the other. Development is conceived not as continuous growth, but as the unfolding of latent powers toward a definite goal. The goal is conceived of as completion,—perfection. Life at any stage short of the attainment of this goal is merely an unfolding toward it. Logically the doctrine is only a variant of the preparation theory. Practically the two differ in that the adherents of the latter make much of the practical and professional duties for which one is preparing, while the developmental doctrine speaks of the ideal and spiritual qualities of the principle which is unfolding.\n\nThe conception that growth and progress are just approximations of a final unchanging goal is the last infirmity of the mind in its transition from a static to a dynamic understanding of life. It simulates the style of the latter. It pays tribute speaking much of development, process, and progress. But all of these operations are conceived to be merely transitional; they lack meaning on their own account. They possess significance only as movements toward something away from what is now going on. Since growth is just a movement toward a completed being, the final ideal is immobile. An abstract and indefinite future is in control with all which connotes in depreciation of present power and opportunity.\n\nSince the goal of perfection, the standard of development is very far away, it is so beyond us that, strictly speaking, it is unattainable. Consequently, in order to be available for present guidance it must be translated into something which stands for it. Otherwise, we should be compelled to regard any and every manifestation of the child as an unfolding from within, and hence sacred. Unless we set up some definite criterion representing the ideal end by which to judge whether a given attitude or act is approximating or moving away, our sole alternative is to withdraw all influences of the environment lest they interfere with proper development. Since that is not practicable, a working substitute is set up. Usually, of course, this is some idea that an adult would like to have a child acquire. \n\nConsequently, by \"suggestive questioning\" or some other pedagogical device, the teacher proceeds to \"draw out\" from the pupil what is desired. If what is desired is obtained, that is evidence that the child is unfolding properly. But as the pupil generally has no initiative of his own in this direction, the result is a random groping after what is wanted, and the formation of habits of dependence upon the cues furnished by others. Just because such methods simulate a true principle and claim to have its sanction they may do more harm than would outright \"telling,\" where, at least, it remains with the child how much will stick.\n\nWithin the sphere of philosophic thought, there have been two typical attempts to provide a working representative of the absolute goal. Both start from the conception of a whole—an absolute—which is \"immanent\" in human life. The perfect or complete ideal is not a mere ideal; it is operative here and now. But it is present only implicitly, \"potentially,\" or in an enfolded condition. What is termed development is the gradual making explicit and outward of what is thus wrapped up. Froebel and Hegel, the authors of the two philosophic schemes referred to, have different ideas of the path by which the progressive realization of manifestation of the complete principle is effected. \n\nAccording to Hegel, it is worked out through a series of historical institutions which embody the different factors in the Absolute. According to Froebel, the actuating force is the presentation of symbols, largely mathematical, corresponding to the essential traits of the Absolute. When these are presented to the child, the Whole, or perfection, sleeping within him, is awakened. A single example may indicate the method. Everyone familiar with the kindergarten is acquainted with the circle in which the children gather. It is not enough that the circle is a convenient way of grouping the children. It must be used \"because it is a symbol of the collective life of mankind in general.\" \n\nFroebel\'s recognition of the significance of the native capacities of children, his loving attention to them, and his influence in inducing others to study them represent perhaps the most effective single force in modern educational theory in effecting widespread acknowledgement of the idea of growth. But his formulation of the notion of development and his organization of devices for promoting it was badly hampered by the fact that he conceived development to be the unfolding of a ready-made latent principle. He failed to see that growing is growth, developing is development, and consequently placed the emphasis on the completed product. Thus he set up a goal which meant the arrest of growth, and a criterion which is not applicable to immediate guidance of powers, save through translation into abstract and symbolic formulae.\n\nA remote goal of complete unfoldedness is, in technical philosophic language, transcendental. That is, it is something apart from direct experience and perception. So far as experience is concerned, it is empty; it represents a vague sentimental aspiration rather than anything which can be intelligently grasped and stated. This vagueness must be compensated for by some a priori formula. Froebel made the connection between the concrete facts of experience and the transcendental ideal of development by regarding the former as symbols of the latter. To regard known things as symbols, according to some arbitrary a priori formula—and every a priori conception must be arbitrary—is an invitation to romantic fancy to seize upon any analogies which appeal to it and treat them as laws. \n\nAfter the scheme of symbolism has been settled upon, some definite technique must be invented by which the inner meaning of the sensible symbols used may be brought home to children. Adults being the formulators of the symbolism are naturally the authors and controllers of the technique. The result was that Froebel\'s love of abstract symbolism often got the better of his sympathetic insight, and there was substituted for development as arbitrary and externally imposed a scheme of dictation as the history of instruction has ever seen.\n\nWith Hegel, the necessity of finding some working concrete counterpart of the inaccessible Absolute took an institutional, rather than symbolic, form. His philosophy, like Froebel\'s, marks in one direction an indispensable contribution to a valid conception of the process of life. The weaknesses of an abstract individualistic philosophy were evident to him; he saw the impossibility of making a clean sweep of historical institutions, of treating them as despotisms begot in artifice and nurtured in fraud. His philosophy of history and society culminated the efforts of a whole series of German writers—Lessing, Herder, Kant, Schiller, and Goethe—to appreciate the nurturing influence of the great collective institutional products of humanity. \n\nFor those who learned the lesson of this movement, it was henceforth impossible to conceive of institutions or of culture as artificial. It destroyed completely—in idea, not in fact—the psychology that regarded the \"mind\" as a ready-made possession of a naked individual by showing the significance of the \"objective mind\"—language, government, art, religion—in the formation of individual minds. But since Hegel was haunted by the conception of an absolute goal, he was obliged to arrange institutions as they concretely exist, on a stepladder of ascending approximations. Each in its time and place is absolutely necessary because of a stage in the self-realizing process of the absolute mind. Taken as such a step or stage, its existence is proof of its complete rationality, for it is an integral element in the total, which is Reason. \n\nAgainst institutions as they are, individuals have no spiritual rights; personal development, and nurture, consist in obedient assimilation of the spirit of existing institutions. Conformity, not transformation, is the essence of education. Institutions change as history shows; but their change, the rise and fall of states, is the work of the \"world spirit.\" Individuals, save the great \"heroes\" who are the chosen organs of the world spirit, have no share or lot in it. In the later nineteenth century, this type of idealism was amalgamated with the doctrine of biological evolution.\n\n\"Evolution\" was a force working itself out to its own end. As against it, or as compared with it, the conscious ideas and preferences of individuals are impotent. Or, rather, they are but the means by which it works itself out. Social progress is an \"organic growth,\" not an experimental selection. Reason is all-powerful, but only Absolute Reason has any power.\n\nThe recognition (or rediscovery, for the idea, was familiar to the Greeks) that great historic institutions are active factors in the intellectual nurture of the mind was a great contribution to educational philosophy. It indicated a genuine advance beyond Rousseau, who had marred his assertion that education must be a natural development and not something forced or grafted upon individuals from without, by the notion that social conditions are not natural. But in its notion of a complete and all-inclusive end of development, the Hegelian theory swallowed up concrete individualities, though magnifying The Individual in the abstract. Some of Hegel\'s followers sought to reconcile the claims of the Whole and of individuality by the conception of society as an organic whole, or organism. \n\nThat social organization is presupposed in the adequate exercise of individual capacity is not to be doubted. But the social organism, interpreted after the relation of the organs of the body to each other and to the whole body, means that each individual has a certain limited place and function, requiring to be supplemented by the place and functions of the other organs. \n\nAs one portion of the bodily tissue is differentiated so that it can be the hand and the hand only, another, the eye, and so on, all taken together making the organism, so one individual is supposed to be differentiated for the exercise of the mechanical operations of society, another for those of a statesman, another for those of a scholar, and so on. The notion of \"organism\" is thus used to give a philosophic sanction to class distinctions in social organization—a notion which in its educational application again means external dictation instead of growth.', 'Education Unfolds Latent Powers Toward a Definite Goal', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'education-unfolds-latent-powers-toward-a-definite-goal', '', '', '2023-03-04 11:27:23', '2023-03-04 11:27:23', '', 13250, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/topic/education-unfolds-latent-powers-toward-a-definite-goal/', 0, 'topic', '', 0);
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(13372, 19, '2023-03-04 11:54:38', '2023-03-04 11:54:38', 'A theory which has had great vogue and which came into existence before the notion of growth had much influence is known as the theory of \"formal discipline.\" It has in view a correct ideal; one outcome of education should be the creation of specific powers of accomplishment. A trained person is one who can do the chief things which it is important for him to do better than he could without training: \"better\" signifying greater ease, efficiency, economy, promptness, etc. That this is an <a href=\"/forums/forum/topic/learning-outcome-benchmarks-for-primary-education-in-lagos-state/\" title=\"Learning Outcome Benchmarks For Primary Education in Lagos State\">outcome of education</a> was indicated in what was said about habits as the product of educative development. \n\nBut the theory in question takes, as it were, a shortcut; it regards some powers (to be presently named) as the direct and conscious aims of instruction, and not simply as the results of growth. There is a definite number of powers to be trained, as one might enumerate the kinds of strokes which a golfer has to master. Consequently, education should get directly at the business of training them. But this implies that they are already there in some untrained form; otherwise, their creation would have to be an indirect product of other activities and agencies. Being there already in some crude form, all that remains is to exercise them in constant and graded repetitions, and they will inevitably be refined and perfected. In the phrase \"formal discipline\" as applied to this conception, \"discipline\" refers both to the outcome of trained power and to the method of training through repeated exercise.\n\nThe forms of powers in question are such things as the faculties of perceiving, retaining, recalling, associating, attending, willing, feeling, imagining, thinking, etc., which are then shaped by exercise upon the material presented. In its classic form, this theory was expressed by Locke. On the one hand, the outer world presents the material or content of knowledge through passively received sensations. On the other hand, the mind has certain ready powers, attention, observation, retention, comparison, abstraction, compounding, etc. \n\nKnowledge results if the mind discriminates and combines things as they are united and divided in nature itself. But the important thing for education is the exercise or practice of the faculties of the mind till they become thoroughly established habits. The analogy constantly employed is that of a billiard player or gymnast, who by repeated use of certain muscles in a uniform way, at last, secures automatic skill. Even the faculty of thinking was to be formed into a trained habit by repeated exercises in making and combining simple distinctions, for which, Locke thought, mathematics affords unrivalled opportunity.\n\nLocke\'s statements fitted well into the dualism of his day. It seemed to do justice to both mind and matter, the individual and the world. One of the two supplied the matter of knowledge and the object upon which the mind should work. The other supplied definite mental powers, which were few in number and which might be trained by specific exercises. The scheme appeared to give due weight to the subject matter of knowledge, and yet it insisted that the end of education is not the bare reception and storage of information, but the formation of personal powers of attention, memory, observation, abstraction, and generalization. \n\nIt was realistic in its emphatic assertion that all material whatever is received from without; it was idealistic in that final stress fell upon the formation of intellectual powers. It was objective and impersonal in its assertion that the individual cannot possess or generate any true ideas on his own account; it was individualistic in placing the end of education in the perfecting of certain faculties possessed at the outset by the individual. This kind of distribution of values expressed with nicety the state of opinion in the generations following upon Locke. It became, without explicit reference to Locke, a common place of educational theory and of psychology. \n\nPractically, it seemed to provide the educator with definite, instead of vague, tasks. It made the elaboration of a technique of instruction relatively easy. All that was necessary was to provide for sufficient practice of each of the powers. This practice consists of repeated acts of attending, observing, memorizing, etc. By grading the difficulty of the acts, making each set of repetitions somewhat more difficult than the set which preceded it, a complete scheme of instruction is evolved. There are various ways, equally conclusive, of criticizing this conception, in both its alleged foundations and in its educational application. \n\n(1) Perhaps the most direct mode of attack consists in pointing out that the supposed original faculties of observation, recollection, willingness, thinking, etc., are purely mythological. There are no such ready-made powers waiting to be exercised and thereby trained. There are, indeed, a great number of original native tendencies, and instinctive modes of action, based on the original connections of neurones in the central nervous system. There are impulsive tendencies of the eyes to follow and fixate light; of the neck muscles to turn toward light and sound; of the hands to reach and grasp; and turn and twist and thump; of the vocal apparatus to make sounds; of the mouth to spew out unpleasant substances; to gag and to curl the lip, and so on in almost indefinite number. \n\nBut these tendencies (a) instead of being a small number sharply marked off from one another, are of an indefinite variety, interweaving with one another in all kinds of subtle ways. (b) Instead of being latent intellectual powers, requiring only exercise for their perfecting, they are tendencies to respond in certain ways to changes in the environment so as to bring about other changes. Something in the throat makes one cough; the tendency is to eject the obnoxious particle and thus modify the subsequent stimulus. The hand touches a hot thing; it is impulsively, wholly unintellectually, snatched away. But the withdrawal alters the stimuli operating, and tends to make them more consonant with the needs of the organism. \n\nIt is by such specific changes of organic activities in response to specific changes in the medium that the control of the environment of which we have spoken (see ante, p. 24) is affected. Now all of our first seeings and hearings and touchings and smellings and tastings are of this kind. In any legitimate sense of the words mental or intellectual or cognitive, they are lacking in these qualities, and no amount of repetitious exercise could bestow any intellectual properties of observation, judgment, or intentional action (volition) upon them.\n\n(2) Consequently the training of our original impulsive activities is not a refinement and perfecting achieved by \"exercise\" as one might strengthen a muscle by practice. It consists rather (a) in selecting from the diffused responses which are evoked at a given time those which are specially adapted to the utilization of the stimulus. That is to say, among the reactions of the body in general that occur upon stimulation of the eye by light, all except those which are specifically adapted to reaching, grasping, and manipulating the object effectively are gradually eliminated—or else no training occurs. As we have already noted, the primary reactions, with very few exceptions are too diffused and general to be practical of much use in the case of the human infant. Hence the identity of training with the selective response. (Compare p. 25.)\n\n (b) Equally important is the specific coordination of different factors of response which take place. There is not merely a selection of the hand reactions which affect grasping, but of the particular visual stimuli which call out just these reactions and no others, and an establishment of a connection between the two. But the coordinating does not stop here. Characteristic temperature reactions may take place when the object is grasped. \n\nThese will also be brought in; later, the temperature reaction may be connected directly with the optical stimulus, the hand reaction being suppressed—as a bright flame, independent of close contact, may steer one away. Or the child in handling the object pounds with it, or crumples it, and a sound issues. The ear response is then brought into the system of response. If a certain sound (the conventional name) is made by others and accompanies the activity, the response of both ear and the vocal apparatus connected with auditory stimulation will also become an associated factor in the complex response.\n\n(3) The more specialized the adjustment of response and stimulus to each other (for, taking the sequence of activities into account, the stimuli are adapted to reactions as well as reactions to stimuli) the more rigid and the less generally available is the training secured. In equivalent language, less intellectual or educative quality attaches to the training. The usual way of stating this fact is that the more specialized the reaction, the less the skill acquired in practising and perfecting it transferable to other modes of behaviour. \n\nAccording to the orthodox theory of formal discipline, a pupil in studying his spelling lesson acquires, besides the ability to spell those particular words, an increase of power of observation, attention, and recollection which may be employed whenever these powers are needed. As matter of fact, the more he confines himself to noticing and fixating on the forms of words, irrespective of connection with other things (such as the meaning of the words, the context in which they are habitually used, the derivation and classification of the verbal form, etc.) the less likely is he to acquire an ability which can be used for anything except the mere noting of verbal visual forms. He may not even be increasing his ability to make accurate distinctions among geometrical forms, to say nothing of his ability to observe in general. He is merely selecting the stimuli supplied by the forms of the letters and the motor reactions of oral or written reproduction. The scope of coordination (to use our prior terminology) is extremely limited. \n\nThe connections which are employed in other observations and recollections (or reproductions) are deliberately eliminated when the pupil is exercised merely upon forms of letters and words. Having been excluded, they cannot be restored when needed. The ability secured to observe and to recall verbal forms is not available for perceiving and recalling other things. In ordinary phraseology, it is not transferable. But the wider the context—that is to say, the more varied the stimuli and responses coordinated—the more the ability acquired is available for the effective performance of other acts; not, strictly speaking, because there is any \"transfer,\" but because the wide range of factors employed in the specific act is equivalent to a broad range of activity, to a flexible, instead of to a narrow and rigid, coordination.\n\n (4) Going to the root of the matter, the fundamental fallacy of the theory is its dualism; that is to say, its separation of activities and capacities from the subject matter. There is no such thing as an ability to see or hear or remember in general; there is only the ability to see or hear or remember something. To talk about training a power, mental or physical, in general, apart from the subject matter involved in its exercise, is nonsense. Exercise may react upon circulation, breathing, and nutrition so as to develop vigour or strength, but this reservoir is available for specific ends only by use in connection with the material means that accomplish them. \n\nVigour will enable a man to play tennis or golf or to sail a boat better than he would if he were weak. But only by employing ball and racket, ball and club, sail and tiller, in definite ways does he become expert in any one of them; and expertness in one secures expertness in another only so far as it is either a sign of aptitude for fine muscular coordination or as the same kind of coordination is involved in all of them. Moreover, the difference between the training of the ability to spell which comes from taking visual forms in a narrow context and one which takes them in connection with the activities required to grasp the meaning, such as context, affiliations of descent, etc., may be compared to the difference between exercises in the gymnasium with pulley weights to \"develop\" certain muscles, and a game or sport. \n\nThe former is uniform and mechanical; it is rigidly specialized. The latter is varied from moment to moment; no two acts are quite alike; novel emergencies have to be met; the coordination forming has to be kept flexible and elastic. Consequently, the training is much more \"general\"; that is to say, it covers a wider territory and includes more factors. Exactly the same thing holds of special and general education of the mind.\n\nA monotonously uniform exercise may by practice give great skill in one special act; but the skill is limited to that act, be it bookkeeping or calculations in logarithms or experiments in hydrocarbons. One may be an authority in a particular field and yet of more than usual poor judgment in matters not closely allied unless the training in the special field has been of a kind to ramify into the subject matter of the other fields. \n\n(5) Consequently, such powers as observation, recollection, judgment, and esthetic taste, represent organized results of the occupation of native active tendencies with certain subject matters. A man does not observe closely and fully by pressing a button for the observing faculty to get to work (in other words by \"willing\" to observe); but if he has something to do which can be accomplished successfully only through intensive and extensive use of eye and hand, he naturally observes. Observation is an outcome, a consequence, of the interaction of sense organs and subject matter. It will vary, accordingly, with the subject matter employed.\n\nIt is consequently futile to set up even the ulterior development of faculties of observation, memory, etc., unless we have first determined what sort of subject matter we wish the pupil to become expert in observing and recalling and for what purpose. And it is only repeating in another form what has already been said, to declare that the criterion here must be social. We want the person to note and recall and judge those things which make him an effective competent member of the group in which he is associated with others. Otherwise, we might as well set the pupil to observing carefully cracks on the wall and set him to memorizing meaningless lists of words in an unknown tongue—which is about what we do in fact when we give way to the doctrine of formal discipline. If the observing habits of a botanist or chemist or engineer are better habits than those which are thus formed, it is because they deal with subject matter which is more significant in life. \n\nIn concluding this portion of the discussion, we note that the distinction between special and general education has nothing to do with the transferability of function or power. In the literal sense, any transfer is miraculous and impossible. But some activities are broad; they involve the coordination of many factors. Their development demands continuous alternation and readjustment. As conditions change, certain factors are subordinated, and others which had been of minor importance come to the front. \n\nThere is constant redistribution of the focus of the action, as is seen in the illustration of a game as over against pulling a fixed weight by a series of uniform motions. Thus there is a practice in the prompt making of new combinations with the focus of activity shifted to meet a change in the subject matter. Wherever an activity is broad in scope (that is, involves the coordinating of a large variety of sub-activities), and is constantly and unexpectedly obliged to change direction in its progressive development, general education is bound to result. This is what \"general\" means; broad and flexible. In practice, education meets these conditions, and hence is general, in the degree in which it takes account of social relationships. \n\nA person may become an expert in technical philosophy, philology, mathematics or engineering or financiering, and be inept and ill-advised in his action and judgment outside of his speciality. If however his concern with these technical subject matters has been connected with human activities having social breadth, the range of active responses called into play and flexibly integrated is much wider. Isolation of subject matter from a social context is the chief obstruction in current practice to securing a general training of the mind. Literature, art, and religion, when thus dissociated, are just as narrowing as the technical things which the professional upholders of general education strenuously oppose.', 'Education is a Training of Faculties.', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'education-is-training-of-faculties', '', '', '2023-04-23 14:35:55', '2023-04-23 14:35:55', '', 13250, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/topic/education-is-training-of-faculties/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13373, 1, '2023-03-04 13:12:42', '2023-03-04 13:12:42', 'A theory which has had great vogue and which came into existence before the notion of growth had much influence is known as the theory of \"formal discipline.\" It has in view a correct ideal; one outcome of education should be the creation of specific powers of accomplishment. A trained person is one who can do the chief things which it is important for him to do better than he could without training: \"better\" signifying greater ease, efficiency, economy, promptness, etc. That this is an outcome of education was indicated in what was said about habits as the product of educative development. \n\nBut the theory in question takes, as it were, a shortcut; it regards some powers (to be presently named) as the direct and conscious aims of instruction, and not simply as the results of growth. There is a definite number of powers to be trained, as one might enumerate the kinds of strokes which a golfer has to master. Consequently, education should get directly at the business of training them. But this implies that they are already there in some untrained form; otherwise, their creation would have to be an indirect product of other activities and agencies. Being there already in some crude form, all that remains is to exercise them in constant and graded repetitions, and they will inevitably be refined and perfected. In the phrase \"formal discipline\" as applied to this conception, \"discipline\" refers both to the outcome of trained power and to the method of training through repeated exercise.\n\nThe forms of powers in question are such things as the faculties of perceiving, retaining, recalling, associating, attending, willing, feeling, imagining, thinking, etc., which are then shaped by exercise upon the material presented. In its classic form, this theory was expressed by Locke. On the one hand, the outer world presents the material or content of knowledge through passively received sensations. On the other hand, the mind has certain ready powers, attention, observation, retention, comparison, abstraction, compounding, etc. \n\nKnowledge results if the mind discriminates and combines things as they are united and divided in nature itself. But the important thing for education is the exercise or practice of the faculties of the mind till they become thoroughly established habits. The analogy constantly employed is that of a billiard player or gymnast, who by repeated use of certain muscles in a uniform way, at last, secures automatic skill. Even the faculty of thinking was to be formed into a trained habit by repeated exercises in making and combining simple distinctions, for which, Locke thought, mathematics affords unrivalled opportunity.\n\nLocke\'s statements fitted well into the dualism of his day. It seemed to do justice to both mind and matter, the individual and the world. One of the two supplied the matter of knowledge and the object upon which the mind should work. The other supplied definite mental powers, which were few in number and which might be trained by specific exercises. The scheme appeared to give due weight to the subject matter of knowledge, and yet it insisted that the end of education is not the bare reception and storage of information, but the formation of personal powers of attention, memory, observation, abstraction, and generalization. \n\nIt was realistic in its emphatic assertion that all material whatever is received from without; it was idealistic in that final stress fell upon the formation of intellectual powers. It was objective and impersonal in its assertion that the individual cannot possess or generate any true ideas on his own account; it was individualistic in placing the end of education in the perfecting of certain faculties possessed at the outset by the individual. This kind of distribution of values expressed with nicety the state of opinion in the generations following upon Locke. It became, without explicit reference to Locke, a common place of educational theory and of psychology. \n\nPractically, it seemed to provide the educator with definite, instead of vague, tasks. It made the elaboration of a technique of instruction relatively easy. All that was necessary was to provide for sufficient practice of each of the powers. This practice consists of repeated acts of attending, observing, memorizing, etc. By grading the difficulty of the acts, making each set of repetitions somewhat more difficult than the set which preceded it, a complete scheme of instruction is evolved. There are various ways, equally conclusive, of criticizing this conception, in both its alleged foundations and in its educational application. \n\n(1) Perhaps the most direct mode of attack consists in pointing out that the supposed original faculties of observation, recollection, willingness, thinking, etc., are purely mythological. There are no such ready-made powers waiting to be exercised and thereby trained. There are, indeed, a great number of original native tendencies, and instinctive modes of action, based on the original connections of neurones in the central nervous system. There are impulsive tendencies of the eyes to follow and fixate light; of the neck muscles to turn toward light and sound; of the hands to reach and grasp; and turn and twist and thump; of the vocal apparatus to make sounds; of the mouth to spew out unpleasant substances; to gag and to curl the lip, and so on in almost indefinite number. \n\nBut these tendencies (a) instead of being a small number sharply marked off from one another, are of an indefinite variety, interweaving with one another in all kinds of subtle ways. (b) Instead of being latent intellectual powers, requiring only exercise for their perfecting, they are tendencies to respond in certain ways to changes in the environment so as to bring about other changes. Something in the throat makes one cough; the tendency is to eject the obnoxious particle and thus modify the subsequent stimulus. The hand touches a hot thing; it is impulsively, wholly unintellectually, snatched away. But the withdrawal alters the stimuli operating, and tends to make them more consonant with the needs of the organism. \n\nIt is by such specific changes of organic activities in response to specific changes in the medium that the control of the environment of which we have spoken (see ante, p. 24) is affected. Now all of our first seeings and hearings and touchings and smellings and tastings are of this kind. In any legitimate sense of the words mental or intellectual or cognitive, they are lacking in these qualities, and no amount of repetitious exercise could bestow any intellectual properties of observation, judgment, or intentional action (volition) upon them.\n\n(2) Consequently the training of our original impulsive activities is not a refinement and perfecting achieved by \"exercise\" as one might strengthen a muscle by practice. It consists rather (a) in selecting from the diffused responses which are evoked at a given time those which are specially adapted to the utilization of the stimulus. That is to say, among the reactions of the body in general that occur upon stimulation of the eye by light, all except those which are specifically adapted to reaching, grasping, and manipulating the object effectively are gradually eliminated—or else no training occurs. As we have already noted, the primary reactions, with very few exceptions are too diffused and general to be practical of much use in the case of the human infant. Hence the identity of training with the selective response. (Compare p. 25.)\n\n (b) Equally important is the specific coordination of different factors of response which take place. There is not merely a selection of the hand reactions which affect grasping, but of the particular visual stimuli which call out just these reactions and no others, and an establishment of a connection between the two. But the coordinating does not stop here. Characteristic temperature reactions may take place when the object is grasped. \n\nThese will also be brought in; later, the temperature reaction may be connected directly with the optical stimulus, the hand reaction being suppressed—as a bright flame, independent of close contact, may steer one away. Or the child in handling the object pounds with it, or crumples it, and a sound issues. The ear response is then brought into the system of response. If a certain sound (the conventional name) is made by others and accompanies the activity, the response of both ear and the vocal apparatus connected with auditory stimulation will also become an associated factor in the complex response.\n\n(3) The more specialized the adjustment of response and stimulus to each other (for, taking the sequence of activities into account, the stimuli are adapted to reactions as well as reactions to stimuli) the more rigid and the less generally available is the training secured. In equivalent language, less intellectual or educative quality attaches to the training. The usual way of stating this fact is that the more specialized the reaction, the less the skill acquired in practising and perfecting it transferable to other modes of behaviour. \n\nAccording to the orthodox theory of formal discipline, a pupil in studying his spelling lesson acquires, besides the ability to spell those particular words, an increase of power of observation, attention, and recollection which may be employed whenever these powers are needed. As matter of fact, the more he confines himself to noticing and fixating on the forms of words, irrespective of connection with other things (such as the meaning of the words, the context in which they are habitually used, the derivation and classification of the verbal form, etc.) the less likely is he to acquire an ability which can be used for anything except the mere noting of verbal visual forms. He may not even be increasing his ability to make accurate distinctions among geometrical forms, to say nothing of his ability to observe in general. He is merely selecting the stimuli supplied by the forms of the letters and the motor reactions of oral or written reproduction. The scope of coordination (to use our prior terminology) is extremely limited. \n\nThe connections which are employed in other observations and recollections (or reproductions) are deliberately eliminated when the pupil is exercised merely upon forms of letters and words. Having been excluded, they cannot be restored when needed. The ability secured to observe and to recall verbal forms is not available for perceiving and recalling other things. In ordinary phraseology, it is not transferable. But the wider the context—that is to say, the more varied the stimuli and responses coordinated—the more the ability acquired is available for the effective performance of other acts; not, strictly speaking, because there is any \"transfer,\" but because the wide range of factors employed in the specific act is equivalent to a broad range of activity, to a flexible, instead of to a narrow and rigid, coordination.\n\n (4) Going to the root of the matter, the fundamental fallacy of the theory is its dualism; that is to say, its separation of activities and capacities from the subject matter. There is no such thing as an ability to see or hear or remember in general; there is only the ability to see or hear or remember something. To talk about training a power, mental or physical, in general, apart from the subject matter involved in its exercise, is nonsense. Exercise may react upon circulation, breathing, and nutrition so as to develop vigour or strength, but this reservoir is available for specific ends only by use in connection with the material means that accomplish them. \n\nVigour will enable a man to play tennis or golf or to sail a boat better than he would if he were weak. But only by employing ball and racket, ball and club, sail and tiller, in definite ways does he become expert in any one of them; and expertness in one secures expertness in another only so far as it is either a sign of aptitude for fine muscular coordination or as the same kind of coordination is involved in all of them. Moreover, the difference between the training of the ability to spell which comes from taking visual forms in a narrow context and one which takes them in connection with the activities required to grasp the meaning, such as context, affiliations of descent, etc., may be compared to the difference between exercises in the gymnasium with pulley weights to \"develop\" certain muscles, and a game or sport. \n\nThe former is uniform and mechanical; it is rigidly specialized. The latter is varied from moment to moment; no two acts are quite alike; novel emergencies have to be met; the coordination forming has to be kept flexible and elastic. Consequently, the training is much more \"general\"; that is to say, it covers a wider territory and includes more factors. Exactly the same thing holds of special and general education of the mind.\n\nA monotonously uniform exercise may by practice give great skill in one special act; but the skill is limited to that act, be it bookkeeping or calculations in logarithms or experiments in hydrocarbons. One may be an authority in a particular field and yet of more than usual poor judgment in matters not closely allied unless the training in the special field has been of a kind to ramify into the subject matter of the other fields. \n\n(5) Consequently, such powers as observation, recollection, judgment, and esthetic taste, represent organized results of the occupation of native active tendencies with certain subject matters. A man does not observe closely and fully by pressing a button for the observing faculty to get to work (in other words by \"willing\" to observe); but if he has something to do which can be accomplished successfully only through intensive and extensive use of eye and hand, he naturally observes. Observation is an outcome, a consequence, of the interaction of sense organs and subject matter. It will vary, accordingly, with the subject matter employed.\n\nIt is consequently futile to set up even the ulterior development of faculties of observation, memory, etc., unless we have first determined what sort of subject matter we wish the pupil to become expert in observing and recalling and for what purpose. And it is only repeating in another form what has already been said, to declare that the criterion here must be social. We want the person to note and recall and judge those things which make him an effective competent member of the group in which he is associated with others. Otherwise, we might as well set the pupil to observing carefully cracks on the wall and set him to memorizing meaningless lists of words in an unknown tongue—which is about what we do in fact when we give way to the doctrine of formal discipline. If the observing habits of a botanist or chemist or engineer are better habits than those which are thus formed, it is because they deal with subject matter which is more significant in life. \n\nIn concluding this portion of the discussion, we note that the distinction between special and general education has nothing to do with the transferability of function or power. In the literal sense, any transfer is miraculous and impossible. But some activities are broad; they involve the coordination of many factors. Their development demands continuous alternation and readjustment. As conditions change, certain factors are subordinated, and others which had been of minor importance come to the front. \n\nThere is constant redistribution of the focus of the action, as is seen in the illustration of a game as over against pulling a fixed weight by a series of uniform motions. Thus there is a practice in the prompt making of new combinations with the focus of activity shifted to meet a change in the subject matter. Wherever an activity is broad in scope (that is, involves the coordinating of a large variety of sub-activities), and is constantly and unexpectedly obliged to change direction in its progressive development, general education is bound to result. This is what \"general\" means; broad and flexible. In practice, education meets these conditions, and hence is general, in the degree in which it takes account of social relationships. \n\nA person may become an expert in technical philosophy, philology, mathematics or engineering or financiering, and be inept and ill-advised in his action and judgment outside of his speciality. If however his concern with these technical subject matters has been connected with human activities having social breadth, the range of active responses called into play and flexibly integrated is much wider. Isolation of subject matter from a social context is the chief obstruction in current practice to securing a general training of the mind. Literature, art, and religion, when thus dissociated, are just as narrowing as the technical things which the professional upholders of general education strenuously oppose.', 'Education is a Training of Faculties.', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13372-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-04 13:12:42', '2023-03-04 13:12:42', '', 13372, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13373', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13374, 1, '2023-03-04 14:33:08', '2023-03-04 14:33:08', '', 'education and Politics Forum', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'politics', '', '', '2023-03-15 09:28:26', '2023-03-15 09:28:26', '', 3592, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13374', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13375, 1, '2023-03-04 14:33:08', '2023-03-04 14:33:08', '', 'Politics', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13374-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-04 14:33:08', '2023-03-04 14:33:08', '', 13374, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13375', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13376, 1, '2023-03-04 14:35:32', '2023-03-04 14:35:32', '', 'Business Forum', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'business-forum', '', '', '2023-03-04 14:35:32', '2023-03-04 14:35:32', '', 3592, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13376', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
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(13378, 1, '2023-03-04 14:37:03', '2023-03-04 14:37:03', '', 'Scholarship Forum', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'scholarship-forum', '', '', '2023-03-04 14:37:03', '2023-03-04 14:37:03', '', 3592, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13378', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
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(13436, 16, '2023-03-09 16:47:13', '2023-03-09 16:47:13', 'The conception that the result of the educative process is capacity for further education stands in contrast with some other ideas which have profoundly influenced practice. The first contrasting conception considered is that of preparing or getting ready for some future duty or privilege. Specific evil effects were pointed out which result from the fact that this aim diverts attention of both teacher and taught from the only point to which it may be fruitfully directed—namely, taking advantage of the needs and possibilities of the immediate present. Consequently it defeats its own professed purpose. The notion that education is an unfolding from within appears to have more likeness to the conception of growth which has been set forth. But as worked out in the theories of Froebel and Hegel, it involves ignoring the interaction of present organic tendencies with the present environment, just as much as the notion of preparation. Some implicit whole is regarded as given ready-made and the significance of growth is merely transitory; it is not an end in itself, but simply a means of making explicit what is already implicit. Since that which is not explicit cannot be made definite use of, something has to be found to represent it.\n\n According to Froebel, the mystic symbolic value of certain objects and acts (largely mathematical) stand for the Absolute Whole which is in process of unfolding. According to Hegel, existing institutions are its effective actual representatives. Emphasis upon symbols and institutions tends to divert perception from the direct growth of experience in richness of meaning. \n\nAnother influential but defective theory is that which conceives that mind has, at birth, certain mental faculties or powers, such as perceiving, remembering, willing, judging, generalizing, attending, etc., and that education is the training of these faculties through repeated exercise. This theory treats subject matter as comparatively external and indifferent, its value residing simply in the fact that it may occasion exercise of the general powers. Criticism was directed upon this separation of the alleged powers from one another and from the material upon which they act. The outcome of the theory in practice was shown to be an undue emphasis upon the training of narrow specialized modes of skill at the expense of initiative, inventiveness, and readaptability—qualities which depend upon the broad and consecutive interaction of specific activities with one another. \n\n1 As matter of fact, the interconnection is so great, there are so many paths of construction, that every stimulus brings about some change in all of the organs of response. We are accustomed however to ignore most of these modifications of the total organic activity, concentrating upon that one which is most specifically adapted to the most urgent stimulus of the moment. \n\n2 This statement should be compared with what was said earlier about the sequential ordering of responses . It is merely a more explicit statement of the way in which that consecutive arrangement occurs.', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13436', '', '', '2023-04-23 17:56:10', '2023-04-23 17:56:10', '', 13372, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/applied-science/education-forum/topic/education-is-training-of-faculties/reply/13436/', 1, 'reply', '', 0),
(13437, 16, '2023-03-09 16:58:37', '2023-03-09 16:58:37', '<span style=\"color: #000000;font-family: \'Times New Roman\';font-size: medium;text-align: justify;text-indent: 16px;background-color: #faebd0\">1. Education as Formation. We now come to a type of theory which denies the existence of faculties and emphasizes the unique role of subject matter in the development of mental and moral disposition. According to it, education is neither a process of unfolding from within nor is it training of faculties residents in mind itself. It is rather the formation of the mind by setting up certain associations or connections of content by means of a subject matter presented from without. Education proceeds by instruction taken in a strictly literal sense, a building into the mind from without. That education is formative of mind is not questioned; it is the conception already propounded. But formation here has a technical meaning dependent upon the idea of something operating from without. Herbart is the best historical representative of this type of theory. </span>\n\n<span style=\"color: #000000;font-family: \'Times New Roman\';font-size: medium;text-align: justify;text-indent: 16px;background-color: #faebd0\">He denies absolutely the existence of innate faculties. The mind is simply endowed with the power to produce various qualities in reaction to the various realities which act upon it. These qualitatively different reactions are called presentations (Vorstellungen). Every presentation once called into being persists; it may be driven below the \"threshold\" of consciousness by new and stronger presentations, produced by the reaction of the soul to new material, but its activity continues by its own inherent momentum, below the surface of consciousness. </span>\n\n<span style=\"color: #000000;font-family: \'Times New Roman\';font-size: medium;text-align: justify;text-indent: 16px;background-color: #faebd0\">What are termed faculties—attention, memory, thinking, perception, and even sentiments, are arrangements, associations, and complications, formed by interacting these submerged presentations with one another and with new presentations. Perception, for example, is the complication of presentations which results from the rise of old presentations to greet and combine with new ones; memory is the evoking of an old presentation above the threshold of consciousness by getting entangled with another presentation, etc. Pleasure is the result of reinforcement among the independent activities of presentations; the pain of their pulling in different ways, etc.</span>', 'Education as Conservative and Progressive', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'education-as-conservative-and-progressive', '', '', '2023-03-09 16:58:37', '2023-03-09 16:58:37', '', 13250, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/applied-science/education-forum/topic/education-as-conservative-and-progressive/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13438, 16, '2023-03-09 17:01:21', '2023-03-09 17:01:21', 'The concrete character of the mind consists, then, wholly of the various arrangements formed by the various presentations in their different qualities. The \"furniture\" of the mind is the mind. Mind is wholly a matter of \"contents.\" The educational implications of this doctrine are threefold.\n\n(1) This or that kind of mind is formed by the use of objects which evoke this or that kind of reaction and which produce this or that arrangement among the reactions called out. The formation of the mind is wholly a matter of the presentation of the proper educational materials.\n\n(2) Since the earlier presentations constitute the \"apperceiving organs\" which control the assimilation of new presentations, their character is all important. The effect of new presentations is to reinforce groupings previously formed. The business of the educator is, first, to select the proper material in order to fix the nature of the original reactions, and, secondly, to arrange the sequence of subsequent presentations on the basis of the store of ideas secured by prior transactions. The control is from behind, from the past, instead of, as in the unfolding conception, in the ultimate goal.\n\n(3) Certain formal steps of all methods in teaching may be laid down. Presentation of new subject matter is obviously the central thing, but since knowing consists in the way in which this interacts with the contents already submerged below consciousness, the first thing is the step of \"preparation,\"—that is, calling into special activity and getting above the floor of consciousness those older presentations which are to assimilate the new one. Then after the presentation, follow the processes of interaction of new and old; then comes the application of the newly formed content to the performance of some task. Everything must go through this course; consequently, there is a perfectly uniform method in instruction in all subjects for all pupils of all ages.', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13438', '', '', '2023-04-23 17:56:08', '2023-04-23 17:56:08', '', 13437, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/applied-science/education-forum/topic/education-as-conservative-and-progressive/reply/13438/', 1, 'reply', '', 0),
(13439, 16, '2023-03-09 17:06:03', '2023-03-09 17:06:03', 'Herbart\'s great service lay in taking the work of teaching out of the region of routine and accident. He brought it into the sphere of conscious method; it became a conscious business with a definite aim and procedure, instead of being a compound of casual inspiration and subservience to tradition. \n\nMoreover, everything in teaching and discipline could be specified, instead of our having to be content with vague and more or less mystic generalities about ultimate ideals and speculative spiritual symbols. He abolished the notion of ready-made faculties, which might be trained by exercise upon any sort of material, and made attention to the concrete subject matter, to the content, all-important. \n\nHerbart undoubtedly has had a greater influence in bringing to the front questions connected with the material of study than any other educational philosopher. He stated problems of method from the standpoint of their connection with subject matter: method having to do with the manner and sequence of presenting the new subject matter to insure its proper interaction with the old.\n\nThe fundamental theoretical defect of this view lies in ignoring the existence in a living being of active and specific functions which are developed in the redirection and combination which occur as they are occupied with their environment. The theory represents the Schoolmaster coming to his own. This fact expresses at once its strength and its weakness. \n\nThe conception that the mind consists of what has been taught, and that the importance of what has been taught consists in its availability for further teaching, reflects the pedagogue\'s view of life. The philosophy is eloquent about the duty of the teacher in instructing pupils; it is almost silent regarding his privilege of learning. It emphasizes the influence of the intellectual environment upon the mind; it slurs over the fact that the environment involves personal sharing in common experiences. \n\nIt exaggerates beyond reason the possibilities of consciously formulated and used methods and underestimates the role of vital, unconscious, attitudes. It insists upon the old, the past, and passes lightly over the operation of the genuinely novel and unforeseeable. It takes, in brief, everything educational into account save its essence,—a vital energy-seeking opportunity for effective exercise. \n\nAll education forms character, mental and moral, but formation consists in the selection and coordination of native activities so that they may utilize the subject matter of the social environment. Moreover, the formation is not only a formation of native activities, but it takes place through them. It is a process of reconstruction and reorganization.', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13439', '', '', '2023-04-23 17:56:07', '2023-04-23 17:56:07', '', 13437, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/applied-science/education-forum/topic/education-as-conservative-and-progressive/reply/13439/', 2, 'reply', '', 0),
(13440, 16, '2023-03-09 17:16:57', '2023-03-09 17:16:57', '<p style=\"text-indent: 1em;margin-top: 0.25em;margin-bottom: 0.25em;color: #000000;font-family: \'Times New Roman\';font-size: medium;text-align: justify\">A peculiar combination of the ideas of development and formation from without has given rise to the recapitulation theory of education, biological and cultural. The individual develops, but his proper development consists in repeating in orderly stages the past evolution of animal life and human history. The former recapitulation occurs physiologically; the latter should be made to occur by means of education. The alleged biological truth that the individual in his growth from the simple embryo to maturity repeats the history of the evolution of animal life in the progress of forms from the simplest to the most complex (or expressed technically, that ontogenesis parallels phylogenesis) does not concern us, save as it is supposed to afford a scientific foundation for cultural recapitulation of the past.</p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 1em;margin-top: 0.25em;margin-bottom: 0.25em;color: #000000;font-family: \'Times New Roman\';font-size: medium;text-align: justify\">Cultural recapitulation says, first, that children at a certain age are in the mental and moral condition of savagery; their instincts are vagrant and predatory because their ancestors at one time lived such a life. Consequently (so it is concluded) the proper subject matter of their education at this time is the material—especially the literary material of myths, folk-tale, and songs—produced by humanity in the analogous stage. Then the child passes on to something corresponding, say, to the pastoral stage, and so on till at the time when he is ready to take part in contemporary life, he arrives at the present epoch of culture.</p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 1em;margin-top: 0.25em;margin-bottom: 0.25em;color: #000000;font-family: \'Times New Roman\';font-size: medium;text-align: justify\">In this detailed and consistent form, the theory, outside of a small school in Germany (followers of Herbart for the most part), has had little currency. But the idea that underlies it is that education is essentially retrospective; that it looks primarily to the past and especially to the literary products of the past, and that mind is adequately formed in the degree in which it is patterned upon the spiritual heritage of the past. This idea has had such an immense influence on higher instruction especially, that it is worth examination in its extreme formulation.</p>', 'Education as Recapitulation and Retrospection', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'education-as-recapitulation-and-retrospection', '', '', '2023-03-09 17:16:57', '2023-03-09 17:16:57', '', 13250, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/applied-science/education-forum/topic/education-as-recapitulation-and-retrospection/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13441, 16, '2023-03-09 17:21:07', '2023-03-09 17:21:07', 'In the first place, its biological basis is fallacious. Embryonic growth of the human infant preserves, without doubt, some of the traits of lower forms of life. But in no respect is it a strict traversing of past stages. If there were any strict \"law\" of repetition, evolutionary development would clearly not have taken place. Each new generation would simply have repeated its predecessors\' existence. Development, in short, has taken place through the entrance of shortcuts and alterations in the prior scheme of growth. And this suggests that the aim of education is to facilitate such short-circuited growth. \n\nThe great advantage of immaturity, educationally speaking, is that it enables us to emancipate the young from the need of dwelling in an outgrown past. The business of education is rather to liberate the young from reviving and retraversing the past than to lead them to a recapitulation of it. The social environment of the young is constituted by the presence and action of the habits of thinking and feeling of civilized men. \n\nTo ignore the directive influence of this present environment upon the young is simply to abdicate the educational function. A biologist has said: \"The history of development in different animals. . . offers to us. . . a series of ingenious, determined, varied but more or less unsuccessful efforts to escape from the necessity of recapitulating, and to substitute for the ancestral method a more direct method.\" Surely it would be foolish if education did not deliberately attempt to facilitate similar efforts in conscious experience so that they become increasingly successful.\n\nThe two factors of truth in the conception may easily be disentangled from association with the false context which perverts them. On the biological side, we have simply the fact that any infant starts with precisely the assortment of impulsive activities with which he does start, they being blind, and many of them conflicting with one another, casual, sporadic, and unadapted to their immediate environment. \n\nThe other point is that it is a part of wisdom to utilize the products of past history so far as they are of help for the future. Since they represent the results of prior experience, their value for future experience may, of course, be indefinitely great. Pieces of literature produced in the past are, so far as men are now in possession and use of them, a part of the present environment of individuals; but there is an enormous difference between availing ourselves of them as present resources and taking them as standards and patterns in their retrospective character.', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13441', '', '', '2023-04-23 17:56:06', '2023-04-23 17:56:06', '', 13440, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/applied-science/education-forum/topic/education-as-recapitulation-and-retrospection/reply/13441/', 1, 'reply', '', 0),
(13442, 16, '2023-03-09 17:29:13', '2023-03-09 17:29:13', '(1) The distortion of the first point usually comes about through misuse of the idea of heredity. It is assumed that heredity means that past life has somehow predetermined the main traits of an individual and that they are so fixed that little serious change can be introduced into them. Thus taken, the influence of heredity is opposed to that of the environment, and the efficacy of the latter is belittled. But for educational purposes, heredity means neither more nor less than the original endowment of an individual. \n\nEducation must take the being as he is; that a particular individual has just such and such equipment of native activities is a basic fact. That they were produced in such and such a way, or that they are derived from one\'s ancestry, is not especially important for the educator, however, it may be with the biologist, as compared with the fact that they now exist. Suppose one had to advise or direct a person regarding his inheritance of property. The fallacy of assuming that the fact it is an inheritance, predetermines its future use, is obvious. \n\nThe advisor is concerned with making the best use of what is there—putting it at work under the most favourable conditions. Obviously, he cannot utilize what is not there; neither can the educator. In this sense, heredity is a limit of education. Recognition of this fact prevents the waste of energy and the irritation that ensues from the too prevalent habit of trying to make by instruction something out of an individual which he is not naturally fitted to become. But the doctrine does not determine what use shall be made of the capacities which exist.\n\n And, except in the case of the imbecile, these original capacities are much more varied and potential, even in the case of the more stupid, than we as yet know properly how to utilize. Consequently, while a careful study of the native aptitudes and deficiencies of an individual is always a preliminary necessity, the subsequent and important step is to furnish an environment which will adequately function whatever activities are present. \n\nThe relationship of heredity and environment is well expressed in the case of language. If a being had no vocal organs from which issue articulate sounds if he had no auditory or other sense-receptors and no connections between the two sets of apparatus, it would be a sheer waste of time to try to teach him to converse. He is born short in that respect, and education must accept the limitation. But if he has this native equipment, its possession in no way guarantees that he will ever talk any language or what language he will talk. \n\nThe environment in which his activities occur and by which they are carried into execution settles these things. If he lived in a dumb unsocial environment where men refused to talk to one another and used only that minimum of gestures without which they could not get along, vocal language would be as unachieved by him as if he had no vocal organs. If the sounds he makes occur in a medium of persons speaking the Chinese language, the activities which make like sounds will be selected and coordinated. \n\nThis illustration may be applied to the entire range of the educability of any individual. It places the heritage from the past in its right connection with the demands and opportunities of the present.\n\n(2) The theory that the proper subject matter of instruction is found in the culture-products of past ages (either in general or more specifically in the particular pieces of literature which were produced in the cultural epoch which is supposed to correspond with the stage of development of those taught) affords another instance of that divorce between the process and product of growth which has been criticized. \n\nTo keep the process alive, to keep it alive in ways which make it easier to keep it alive in the future, is the function of educational subject matter. But an individual can live only in the present. The present is not just something which comes after the past; much less something produced by it. It is what life is in leaving the past behind it. The study of past products will not help us understand the present, because the present is not due to the products, but to the life of which they were the products. \n\nKnowledge of the past and its heritage is of great significance when it enters into the present, but not otherwise. And the mistake of making the records and remains of the past the main material of education is that it cuts the vital connection of the present and past, and tends to make the past a rival of the present and the present a more or less futile imitation of the past. Under such circumstances, culture becomes an ornament and solace; a refuge and an asylum. Men escape from the crudities of the present to live in its imagined refinements, instead of using what the past offers as an agency for ripening these crudities. \n\nThe present, in short, generates the problems which lead us to search the past for suggestions, and which supply meaning to what we find when we search. The past is the past precisely because it does not include what is characteristic in the present. The moving present includes the past on condition that it uses the past to direct its own movement. The past is a great resource for the imagination; it adds a new dimension to life, but OD conditions that it be seen as the past of the present, and not as another and disconnected world. \n\nThe principle which makes little of the present act of living and operation of growing, the only thing always present, naturally looks to the past because the future goal which it sets up is remote and empty. But having turned its back upon the present, it has no way of returning to it laden with the spoils of the past. A mind that is adequately sensitive to the needs and occasions of the present actuality will have the liveliest of motives for interest in the background of the present, and will never have to hunt for a way back because it will never have lost connection.\n\n3. Education as Reconstruction. In contrast with the ideas both of unfolding of latent powers from within, and of the formation from without, whether by physical nature or by the cultural products of the past, the idea of growth results in the conception that education is a constant reorganizing or reconstructing of experience. It has all the time an immediate end, and so far as activity is educative, it reaches that end—the direct transformation of the quality of experience. \n\nInfancy, youth, and adult life,—all stand on the same <a href=\"/forums/forum/topic/learning-outcome-benchmarks-for-primary-education-in-lagos-state/\" title=\"Learning Outcome Benchmarks For Primary Education in Lagos State\">educative level in the sense that what is really learned</a> at any and every stage of experience constitutes the value of that experience, and in the sense that it is the chief business of life at every point to make living thus contribute to an enrichment of its own perceptible meaning.\n\nWe thus reach a technical definition of education: It is the reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience, and which increases the ability to direct the course of subsequent experience. \n\n(1) The increment of meaning corresponds to the increased perception of the connections and continuities of the activities in which we are engaged. The activity begins in an impulsive form; that is, it is blind. It does not know what it is about; that is to say, what are its interactions with other activities. An activity which brings education or instruction with it makes one aware of some of the connections which had been imperceptible. \n\nTo recur to our simple example, a child who reaches for a bright light gets burned. Henceforth he knows that a certain act of touching in connection with a certain act of vision (and vice-versa) means heat and pain; or, a certain light means a source of heat. The acts by which a scientific man in his laboratory learns more about flame differ no whit in principle. By doing certain things, he makes perceptible certain connections of heat with other things, which had been previously ignored.\n\n Thus his acts in relation to these things get more meaning; he knows better what he is doing or \"is about\" when he has to do with them; he can intend consequences instead of just letting them happen—all synonymous ways of saying the same thing. At the same stroke, the flame has gained in meaning; all that is known about combustion, oxidation, light and temperature, may become an intrinsic part of its intellectual content.', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13442', '', '', '2023-04-23 17:56:04', '2023-04-23 17:56:04', '', 13440, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/applied-science/education-forum/topic/education-as-recapitulation-and-retrospection/reply/13442/', 2, 'reply', '', 0),
(13443, 16, '2023-03-09 17:33:46', '2023-03-09 17:33:46', '(2) The other side of an educative experience is the added power of subsequent direction or control. To say that one knows what he is about, or can intend certain consequences, is to say, of course, that he can better anticipate what is going to happen; that he can, therefore, get ready or prepare in advance so as to secure beneficial consequences and avert undesirable ones. A genuinely educative experience, then, one in which instruction is conveyed and ability increased, is contradistinguished from a routine activity on one hand, and a capricious activity on the other. \n\n(a) In the latter one \"does not care what happens\"; one just lets himself go and avoids connecting the consequences of one\'s act (the evidence of its connections with other things) with the act. It is customary to frown upon the such aimless random activity, treating it as willful mischief or carelessness or lawlessness. But there is a tendency to seek the cause of such aimless activities in the youth\'s own disposition, isolated from everything else. But in fact, such activity is explosive, and due to maladjustment with surroundings. Individuals act capriciously whenever they act under external dictation, or from being told, without having a purpose of their own or perceiving the bearing of the deed upon other acts. \n\nOne may learn by doing something which he does not understand; even in the most intelligent action, we do much that we do not mean because the largest portion of the connections of the act we consciously intend is not perceived or anticipated. But we learn only because after the act is performed we note results which we had not noted before. But much work in school consists in setting up rules by which pupils are to act of such a sort that even after pupils have acted, they are not led to see the connection between the result—say the answer—and the method pursued. So far as they are concerned, the whole thing is a trick and a kind of miracle. Such action is essentially capricious and leads to capricious habits. \n\n(b) Routine action, an action which is automatic, may increase skill to do a particular thing. In so far, it might be said to have an educative effect. But it does not lead to new perceptions of bearings and connections; it limits rather than widens the meaning horizon. And since the environment changes and our way of acting has to be modified in order successfully to keep a balanced connection with things, an isolated uniform way of acting becomes disastrous at some critical moment. The vaunted \"skill\" turns out gross ineptitude.\n\nThe essential contrast of the idea of education as the continuous reconstruction with the other one-sided conceptions which have been criticized in this and the previous chapter is that it identifies the end (the result) and the process. This is verbally self-contradictory, but only verbally. It means that experience as an active process occupies time and that its later period completes its earlier portion; it brings to light connections involved, but hitherto unperceived. The later outcome thus reveals the meaning of the earlier, while the experience as a whole establishes a bent or disposition toward the things possessing this meaning. Every such continuous experience or activity is educative, and all education resides in having such experiences.', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13443', '', '', '2023-04-23 17:56:03', '2023-04-23 17:56:03', '', 13440, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/applied-science/education-forum/topic/education-as-recapitulation-and-retrospection/reply/13443/', 3, 'reply', '', 0),
(13444, 16, '2023-03-09 17:39:59', '2023-03-09 17:39:59', 'It remains only to point out (what will receive more ample attention later) that the reconstruction of experience may be social as well as personal. For purposes of simplification, we have spoken in the earlier chapters somewhat as if the education of the immature which fills them with the spirit of the social group to which they belong, were a sort of catching up of the child with the aptitudes and resources of the adult group. In static societies, societies which make the maintenance of established custom their measure of value, this conception applies in the main. But not in progressive communities. \n\nThey endeavour to shape the experiences of the young so that instead of reproducing current habits, better habits shall be formed, and thus the future adult society be an improvement on their own. Men have long had some intimation of the extent to which education may be consciously used to eliminate obvious social evils through starting the young on paths which shall not produce these ills and some idea of the extent in which education may be made an instrument of realizing the better hopes of men. But we are doubtless far from realizing the potential efficacy of education as a constructive agency for improving society, from realizing that it represents not only the development of children and youth but also of the future society of which they will be the constituents.\n\nEducation may be conceived either retrospectively or\nprospectively. That is to say, it may be treated as a process of accommodating the future to the past, or as utilization of the past for a resource in a developing future. The former finds its standards and patterns in what has gone before. The mind may be regarded as a group of contents resulting from having certain things presented. In this case, the earlier presentations constitute the material to which the later is to be assimilated. Emphasis upon the value of the early experiences of immature beings is most important, especially because of the tendency to regard them as of little account. \n\nBut these experiences do not consist of externally presented material, but of the interaction of native activities with the environment which progressively modifies both the activities and the environment. The defect of the Herbartian theory of formation through presentations consists in slighting this constant interaction and change. The same principle of criticism applies to theories which find the primary subject matter of study in the cultural products—especially the literary products—of man\'s history. \n\nIsolated from their connection with the present environment in which individuals have to act, they become a kind of rival and distracting environment. Their value lies in their use to increase the meaning of the things with which we have activities to do at the present time. The idea of education advanced in these chapters is formally summed up in the idea of continuous reconstruction of experience, an idea which is marked off from education as preparation for a remote future, as unfolding, as external formation, and as a recapitulation of the past.', '', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13444', '', '', '2023-04-23 17:56:01', '2023-04-23 17:56:01', '', 13440, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/applied-science/education-forum/topic/education-as-recapitulation-and-retrospection/reply/13444/', 4, 'reply', '', 0),
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(13500, 1, '2023-03-13 22:13:34', '2023-03-13 22:13:34', '<!-- wp:image {\"align\":\"center\",\"id\":13046} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter\"><img src=\"https://teachers.com.ng/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/proud-teacher-300x244.gif\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-13046\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\",\"level\":5,\"textColor\":\"vivid-cyan-blue\"} -->\n<h5 class=\"has-text-align-center has-vivid-cyan-blue-color has-text-color\" id=\"h-welcome-to-the-teachers-community-a-global-community-of-great-teachers-from-all-levels-of-the-teaching-profession-elementary-primary-secondary-and-tertiary-institutions\"><strong>Welcome to the Teachers’ Community - a global community of great teachers from all levels of the teaching profession - Elementary, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Institutions</strong>.</h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"align\":\"center\",\"id\":13063} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter\"><img src=\"https://teachers.com.ng/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/coach-skills-teacher-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-13063\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:spacer {\"height\":\"43px\"} -->\n<div style=\"height:43px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"></div>\n<!-- /wp:spacer -->\n\n<!-- wp:buttons -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-buttons\"><!-- wp:button {\"style\":{\"border\":{\"radius\":\"74px\"}},\"fontSize\":\"medium\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-button has-custom-font-size has-medium-font-size\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\" style=\"border-radius:74px\">Teachers’ Community creates avenues for teachers to meet their colleagues all over the world. Teachers create forums and groups, and initiate new topics or participate in education-related issues. Join us today</a></div>\n<!-- /wp:button --></div>\n<!-- /wp:buttons -->\n\n<!-- wp:spacer {\"height\":\"36px\"} -->\n<div style=\"height:36px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"></div>\n<!-- /wp:spacer -->\n\n<!-- wp:columns -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns\"><!-- wp:column -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-column\"><!-- wp:buttons {\"layout\":{\"type\":\"flex\",\"justifyContent\":\"center\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-buttons\"><!-- wp:button {\"backgroundColor\":\"vivid-green-cyan\",\"className\":\"is-style-fill\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-button is-style-fill\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color has-background wp-element-button\" href=\"https://teachers.com.ng/wp-login.php\">Login</a></div>\n<!-- /wp:button -->\n\n<!-- wp:button {\"backgroundColor\":\"vivid-cyan-blue\",\"fontSize\":\"medium\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-button has-custom-font-size has-medium-font-size\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color has-background wp-element-button\" href=\"https://teachers.com.ng/register/\">Join Us</a></div>\n<!-- /wp:button --></div>\n<!-- /wp:buttons --></div>\n<!-- /wp:column --></div>\n<!-- /wp:columns -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\",\"textColor\":\"vivid-purple\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center has-vivid-purple-color has-text-color\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Features that You Enjoy</span></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Connect with teachers all over the world.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Professional forums for all academic groups</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Make friends and accept friends</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Create your personal circles</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Add members to your circles</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Create unlimited groups for discussions</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Create forums along with the groups</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Join groups and forums</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Make groups and forums public or private</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Maximum moderation of content by members and admins</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Zero tolerance for spamming and all forms of abuse</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>100% free for all and forever</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<h2 style=\"text-align: center;\">Recent Topics</h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">[bbp-topic-index]</p>', 'Teachers’ Community - Free Groups, Forums', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13023-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-13 22:13:34', '2023-03-13 22:13:34', '', 13023, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13500', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13501, 1, '2023-03-13 22:13:55', '2023-03-13 22:13:55', '<!-- wp:image {\"align\":\"center\",\"id\":13046} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter\"><img src=\"https://teachers.com.ng/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/proud-teacher-300x244.gif\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-13046\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\",\"level\":5,\"textColor\":\"vivid-cyan-blue\"} -->\n<h5 class=\"has-text-align-center has-vivid-cyan-blue-color has-text-color\" id=\"h-welcome-to-the-teachers-community-a-global-community-of-great-teachers-from-all-levels-of-the-teaching-profession-elementary-primary-secondary-and-tertiary-institutions\"><strong>Welcome to the Teachers’ Community - a global community of great teachers from all levels of the teaching profession - Elementary, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Institutions</strong>.</h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"align\":\"center\",\"id\":13063} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter\"><img src=\"https://teachers.com.ng/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/coach-skills-teacher-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-13063\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:spacer {\"height\":\"43px\"} -->\n<div style=\"height:43px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"></div>\n<!-- /wp:spacer -->\n\n<!-- wp:buttons -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-buttons\"><!-- wp:button {\"style\":{\"border\":{\"radius\":\"74px\"}},\"fontSize\":\"medium\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-button has-custom-font-size has-medium-font-size\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\" style=\"border-radius:74px\">Teachers’ Community creates avenues for teachers to meet their colleagues all over the world. Teachers create forums and groups, and initiate new topics or participate in education-related issues. Join us today</a></div>\n<!-- /wp:button --></div>\n<!-- /wp:buttons -->\n\n<!-- wp:spacer {\"height\":\"36px\"} -->\n<div style=\"height:36px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"></div>\n<!-- /wp:spacer -->\n\n<!-- wp:columns -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns\"><!-- wp:column -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-column\"><!-- wp:buttons {\"layout\":{\"type\":\"flex\",\"justifyContent\":\"center\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-buttons\"><!-- wp:button {\"backgroundColor\":\"vivid-green-cyan\",\"className\":\"is-style-fill\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-button is-style-fill\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color has-background wp-element-button\" href=\"https://teachers.com.ng/wp-login.php\">Login</a></div>\n<!-- /wp:button -->\n\n<!-- wp:button {\"backgroundColor\":\"vivid-cyan-blue\",\"fontSize\":\"medium\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-button has-custom-font-size has-medium-font-size\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color has-background wp-element-button\" href=\"https://teachers.com.ng/register/\">Join Us</a></div>\n<!-- /wp:button --></div>\n<!-- /wp:buttons --></div>\n<!-- /wp:column --></div>\n<!-- /wp:columns -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\",\"textColor\":\"vivid-purple\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center has-vivid-purple-color has-text-color\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Features that You Enjoy</span></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Connect with teachers all over the world.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Professional forums for all academic groups</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Make friends and accept friends</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Create your personal circles</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Add members to your circles</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Create unlimited groups for discussions</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Create forums along with the groups</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Join groups and forums</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Make groups and forums public or private</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Maximum moderation of content by members and admins</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Zero tolerance for spamming and all forms of abuse</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>100% free for all and forever</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li></li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<h2 style=\"text-align: center;\">View Recent Topics</h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">[bbp-topic-index]</p>', 'Teachers’ Community - Free Groups, Forums', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13023-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-13 22:13:55', '2023-03-13 22:13:55', '', 13023, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13501', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13502, 1, '2023-03-13 22:24:21', '2023-03-13 22:24:21', '<!-- wp:image {\"align\":\"center\",\"id\":13046} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter\"><img src=\"https://teachers.com.ng/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/proud-teacher-300x244.gif\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-13046\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\",\"level\":5,\"textColor\":\"vivid-cyan-blue\"} -->\n<h5 class=\"has-text-align-center has-vivid-cyan-blue-color has-text-color\" id=\"h-welcome-to-the-teachers-community-a-global-community-of-great-teachers-from-all-levels-of-the-teaching-profession-elementary-primary-secondary-and-tertiary-institutions\"><strong>Welcome to the Teachers’ Community - a global community of great teachers from all levels of the teaching profession - Elementary, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Institutions</strong>.</h5>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:image {\"align\":\"center\",\"id\":13063} -->\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter\"><img src=\"https://teachers.com.ng/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/coach-skills-teacher-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-13063\"/></figure>\n<!-- /wp:image -->\n\n<!-- wp:spacer {\"height\":\"43px\"} -->\n<div style=\"height:43px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"></div>\n<!-- /wp:spacer -->\n\n<!-- wp:buttons -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-buttons\"><!-- wp:button {\"style\":{\"border\":{\"radius\":\"74px\"}},\"fontSize\":\"medium\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-button has-custom-font-size has-medium-font-size\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\" style=\"border-radius:74px\">Teachers’ Community creates avenues for teachers to meet their colleagues all over the world. Teachers create forums and groups, and initiate new topics or participate in education-related issues. Join us today</a></div>\n<!-- /wp:button --></div>\n<!-- /wp:buttons -->\n\n<!-- wp:spacer {\"height\":\"36px\"} -->\n<div style=\"height:36px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"></div>\n<!-- /wp:spacer -->\n\n<!-- wp:columns -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns\"><!-- wp:column -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-column\"><!-- wp:buttons {\"layout\":{\"type\":\"flex\",\"justifyContent\":\"center\"}} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-buttons\"><!-- wp:button {\"backgroundColor\":\"vivid-green-cyan\",\"className\":\"is-style-fill\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-button is-style-fill\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color has-background wp-element-button\" href=\"https://teachers.com.ng/wp-login.php\">Login</a></div>\n<!-- /wp:button -->\n\n<!-- wp:button {\"backgroundColor\":\"vivid-cyan-blue\",\"fontSize\":\"medium\"} -->\n<div class=\"wp-block-button has-custom-font-size has-medium-font-size\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color has-background wp-element-button\" href=\"https://teachers.com.ng/register/\">Join Us</a></div>\n<!-- /wp:button --></div>\n<!-- /wp:buttons --></div>\n<!-- /wp:column --></div>\n<!-- /wp:columns -->\n\n<!-- wp:heading {\"textAlign\":\"center\",\"textColor\":\"vivid-purple\"} -->\n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-center has-vivid-purple-color has-text-color\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Features that You Enjoy</span></h2>\n<!-- /wp:heading -->\n\n<!-- wp:list -->\n<ul><!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Connect with teachers all over the world.</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Professional forums for all academic groups</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Make friends and accept friends</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Create your personal circles</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Add members to your circles</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Create unlimited groups for discussions</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Create forums along with the groups</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Join groups and forums</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Make groups and forums public or private</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Maximum moderation of content by members and admins</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>Zero tolerance for spamming and all forms of abuse</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item -->\n\n<!-- wp:list-item -->\n<li>100% free for all and forever</li>\n<!-- /wp:list-item --></ul>\n<!-- /wp:list -->\n\n<h2 style=\"text-align: center;\">View Recent Topics</h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">[bbp-topic-index]</p>', 'Teachers’ Community - Free Groups, Forums', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13023-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-13 22:24:21', '2023-03-13 22:24:21', '', 13023, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13502', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13503, 16, '2023-04-23 17:54:01', '2023-04-23 17:54:01', '<div class=\"post_column_1\" style=\"font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;width: 139.375px;float: left;padding-right: 24.2344px\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px\">DFID/UK Universities\nOnline Masters Degree</p>\n\n</div>\n<div class=\"post_column_1\" style=\"font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;width: 139.375px;float: left;padding-right: 0px\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px\"><strong>Deadline:</strong> 28 March 2023 (annual)\nStudy in: any Country\nCourse starts September 2023</p>\n\n</div>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px\"></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px\"></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Brief description: </strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarships are for candidates from least developed and lower middle income Commonwealth countries, for part-time Master’s study by distance learning on selected courses offered by UK universities.</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Host Institution(s) and Online Courses offered:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">See the list of <a style=\"color: #003366;background: transparent\" href=\"https://cscuk.fcdo.gov.uk/commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-eligible-courses/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">eligible distance learning Master’s courses offered by participating UK institutions for 2023</a></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Number of Scholarships:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">Not specified.</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Target group:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">Nationals of Commonwealth Developing Countries:</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">Bangladesh, Belize, Cameroon, Eswatini, Ghana, India, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Samoa, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, The Gambia, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, Zambia</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Scholarship value/inclusions:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">A Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship covers tuition fees and study grants where required.</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Eligibility:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px\">To apply for the scholarship, you must:</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 60px;text-align: justify\">• Be a citizen of or have been granted refugee status by an eligible Commonwealth country, or be a British Protected Person</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 60px;text-align: justify\">• Be permanently resident in a developing Commonwealth country</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 60px;text-align: justify\">• Hold a first degree of at least upper second class (2:1) standard. A lower qualification and sufficient relevant experience may be considered in certain cases</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 60px\">• Be unable to afford to study the programme without this scholarship</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Application instructions:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">Candidates must apply and secure admission to study an approved Master’s course at a participating UK university in addition to applying for a Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship. <strong>You must check with your chosen university for their specific advice on when to apply, admission requirements, and rules for applying.</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">To apply for the Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship, you must make your application using the CSC’s Electronic Application System (EAS), in addition to any other application that you are required to complete by your chosen university. All applications must be submitted by 16:00 (GMT) on <strong>28 March 2023 </strong>at the latest.</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">It is important to visit the official website (link found below) for detailed information on how to apply for this scholarship. All enquiries about these scholarships should be directed to the university to which you wish to apply.</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Website:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px\">Official Scholarship Website: <a style=\"color: #003366;background: transparent\" href=\"https://cscuk.fcdo.gov.uk/scholarships/commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-candidates-2022/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https://cscuk.fcdo.gov.uk/scholarships/commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-candidates-2022/</a></p>', 'Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarships for Developing Commonwealth Countrie', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-for-developing-commonwealth-countrie-2', '', '', '2023-04-23 17:54:02', '2023-04-23 17:54:02', '', 13378, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/general/scholarship-forum/topic/commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-for-developing-commonwealth-countrie/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13504, 16, '2023-04-23 17:54:03', '2023-04-23 17:54:03', '<div class=\"post_column_1\" style=\"font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;width: 139.375px;float: left;padding-right: 24.2344px\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px\">DFID/UK Universities\nOnline Masters Degree</p>\n\n</div>\n<div class=\"post_column_1\" style=\"font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;width: 139.375px;float: left;padding-right: 0px\">\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px\"><strong>Deadline:</strong> 28 March 2023 (annual)\nStudy in: any Country\nCourse starts September 2023</p>\n\n</div>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px\"></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Brief description: </strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarships are for candidates from least developed and lower middle income Commonwealth countries, for part-time Master’s study by distance learning on selected courses offered by UK universities.</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Host Institution(s) and Online Courses offered:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">See the list of <a style=\"color: #003366;background: transparent\" href=\"https://cscuk.fcdo.gov.uk/commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-eligible-courses/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">eligible distance learning Master’s courses offered by participating UK institutions for 2023</a></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Number of Scholarships:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">Not specified.</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Target group:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">Nationals of Commonwealth Developing Countries:</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">Bangladesh, Belize, Cameroon, Eswatini, Ghana, India, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Samoa, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, The Gambia, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, Zambia</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Scholarship value/inclusions:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">A Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship covers tuition fees and study grants where required.</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Eligibility:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px\">To apply for the scholarship, you must:</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 60px;text-align: justify\">• Be a citizen of or have been granted refugee status by an eligible Commonwealth country, or be a British Protected Person</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 60px;text-align: justify\">• Be permanently resident in a developing Commonwealth country</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 60px;text-align: justify\">• Hold a first degree of at least upper second class (2:1) standard. A lower qualification and sufficient relevant experience may be considered in certain cases</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 60px\">• Be unable to afford to study the programme without this scholarship</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Application instructions:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">Candidates must apply and secure admission to study an approved Master’s course at a participating UK university in addition to applying for a Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship. <strong>You must check with your chosen university for their specific advice on when to apply, admission requirements, and rules for applying.</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">To apply for the Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship, you must make your application using the CSC’s Electronic Application System (EAS), in addition to any other application that you are required to complete by your chosen university. All applications must be submitted by 16:00 (GMT) on <strong>28 March 2023 </strong>at the latest.</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">It is important to visit the official website (link found below) for detailed information on how to apply for this scholarship. All enquiries about these scholarships should be directed to the university to which you wish to apply.</p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;color: #003366\"><strong>Website:</strong></p>\n<p style=\"margin-top: 0px;margin-bottom: 10px;font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 13.3333px;padding-left: 30px\">Official Scholarship Website: <a style=\"color: #003366;background: transparent\" href=\"https://cscuk.fcdo.gov.uk/scholarships/commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-candidates-2022/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https://cscuk.fcdo.gov.uk/scholarships/commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-candidates-2022/</a></p>', 'Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarships for Developing Commonwealth Countrie', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-for-developing-commonwealth-countrie-3', '', '', '2023-04-23 17:54:04', '2023-04-23 17:54:04', '', 13378, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/general/scholarship-forum/topic/commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-for-developing-commonwealth-countrie/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13505, 16, '2023-03-14 08:11:12', '2023-03-14 08:11:12', 'DFID/UK Universities\n\nOnline Masters Degree\n\n&nbsp;\n\nDeadline: 28 March 2023 (annual)\n\nStudy in: any Country\n\nCourse starts September 2023\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\nBrief description:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nCommonwealth Distance Learning Scholarships are for candidates from least developed and lower middle income Commonwealth countries, for part-time Master’s study by distance learning on selected courses offered by UK universities.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nHost Institution(s) and Online Courses offered:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nSee the list of eligible distance learning Master’s courses offered by participating UK institutions for 2023\n\n&nbsp;\n\nNumber of Scholarships:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nNot specified.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nTarget group:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nNationals of Commonwealth Developing Countries:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nBangladesh, Belize, Cameroon, Eswatini, Ghana, India, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Samoa, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, The Gambia, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, Zambia\n\n&nbsp;\n\nScholarship value/inclusions:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nA Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship covers tuition fees and study grants where required.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nEligibility:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nTo apply for the scholarship, you must:\n\n&nbsp;\n\n• Be a citizen of or have been granted refugee status by an eligible Commonwealth country, or be a British Protected Person\n\n&nbsp;\n\n• Be permanently resident in a developing Commonwealth country\n\n&nbsp;\n\n• Hold a first degree of at least upper second class (2:1) standard. A lower qualification and sufficient relevant experience may be considered in certain cases\n\n&nbsp;\n\n• Be unable to afford to study the programme without this scholarship\n\n&nbsp;\n\nApplication instructions:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nCandidates must apply and secure admission to study an approved Master’s course at a participating UK university in addition to applying for a Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship. You must check with your chosen university for their specific advice on when to apply, admission requirements, and rules for applying.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nTo apply for the Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship, you must make your application using the CSC’s Electronic Application System (EAS), in addition to any other application that you are required to complete by your chosen university. All applications must be submitted by 16:00 (GMT) on 28 March 2023 at the latest.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nIt is important to visit the official website (link found below) for detailed information on how to apply for this scholarship. All enquiries about these scholarships should be directed to the university to which you wish to apply.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nWebsite:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nOfficial Scholarship Website: https://cscuk.fcdo.gov.uk/scholarships/commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-candidates-2022/', 'Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarships for Developing Commonwealth Countrie', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-for-developing-commonwealth-countrie', '', '', '2023-03-14 08:11:13', '2023-03-14 08:11:13', '', 13378, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/general/scholarship-forum/topic/commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-for-developing-commonwealth-countrie/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13506, 16, '2023-03-14 08:11:13', '2023-03-14 08:11:13', 'DFID/UK Universities\n\nOnline Masters Degree\n\n&nbsp;\n\nDeadline: 28 March 2023 (annual)\n\nStudy in: any Country\n\nCourse starts September 2023\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\nBrief description:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nCommonwealth Distance Learning Scholarships are for candidates from least developed and lower middle income Commonwealth countries, for part-time Master’s study by distance learning on selected courses offered by UK universities.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nHost Institution(s) and Online Courses offered:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nSee the list of eligible distance learning Master’s courses offered by participating UK institutions for 2023\n\n&nbsp;\n\nNumber of Scholarships:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nNot specified.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nTarget group:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nNationals of Commonwealth Developing Countries:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nBangladesh, Belize, Cameroon, Eswatini, Ghana, India, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Samoa, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, The Gambia, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, Zambia\n\n&nbsp;\n\nScholarship value/inclusions:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nA Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship covers tuition fees and study grants where required.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nEligibility:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nTo apply for the scholarship, you must:\n\n&nbsp;\n\n• Be a citizen of or have been granted refugee status by an eligible Commonwealth country, or be a British Protected Person\n\n&nbsp;\n\n• Be permanently resident in a developing Commonwealth country\n\n&nbsp;\n\n• Hold a first degree of at least upper second class (2:1) standard. A lower qualification and sufficient relevant experience may be considered in certain cases\n\n&nbsp;\n\n• Be unable to afford to study the programme without this scholarship\n\n&nbsp;\n\nApplication instructions:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nCandidates must apply and secure admission to study an approved Master’s course at a participating UK university in addition to applying for a Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship. You must check with your chosen university for their specific advice on when to apply, admission requirements, and rules for applying.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nTo apply for the Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship, you must make your application using the CSC’s Electronic Application System (EAS), in addition to any other application that you are required to complete by your chosen university. All applications must be submitted by 16:00 (GMT) on 28 March 2023 at the latest.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nIt is important to visit the official website (link found below) for detailed information on how to apply for this scholarship. All enquiries about these scholarships should be directed to the university to which you wish to apply.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nWebsite:\n\n&nbsp;\n\nOfficial Scholarship Website: https://cscuk.fcdo.gov.uk/scholarships/commonwealth-distance-learning-scholarships-candidates-2022/', 'Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarships for Developing Commonwealth Countrie', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13505-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-14 08:11:13', '2023-03-14 08:11:13', '', 13505, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13506', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13507, 16, '2023-03-14 11:13:31', '2023-03-14 11:13:31', '<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>University of Edinburgh</strong></p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Online Masters Degree</strong></p>\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Deadline</strong>: 5 June 2023 (Annual)\n\nStudy in:  any Country (online)\n\nCourse starts Sept 2023\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Brief description</strong>: The University of Edinburgh will offer scholarships for eligible part-time distance learning Master’s programmes offered by the University.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nHost Institution(s): University of Edinburgh in United Kingdom\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Level/Field of study:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nAny part-time distance learning Master’s programme offered by the University.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nNumber of Awards: 20\n\n&nbsp;\n\nTarget group: Applicants must be nationals and residents of the countries listed here.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nScholarship value/duration: Each scholarship will cover full tuition fees and will be tenable for the normal duration of the programme of study.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nEligibility: Scholarships will be available for students commencing any part-time distance learning Masters programme offered by the University in session 2023-2024. Applicants must be nationals of the eligible countries (listed above).\n\n&nbsp;\n\nApplicants should already have been offered a place at the University of Edinburgh and should have firmly accepted that offer or be intending to do so.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nApplicants will be asked to include the following within their personal statement: Within your personal statement please include: (a) the specific elements of this programme that attracted you to the University of Edinburgh; (b) confirm how successful completion of this programme will benefit your career and personal development and (c) how this will enable you to contribute to your community/region or country?\n\n&nbsp;\n\nApplication instructions Instructions on how to apply for the scholarship will be found at the official website. The deadline for applications is  5 June 2023.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nIt is important to visit the official website (link found below) for detailed information on how to apply for this scholarship.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nWebsite: Official Scholarship Website: https://www.ed.ac.uk/student-funding/postgraduate/e-learning/online-masters', 'Edinburgh Global Online Distance Learning Scholarships', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'edinburgh-global-online-distance-learning-scholarships', '', '', '2023-03-14 11:13:32', '2023-03-14 11:13:32', '', 13378, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/general/scholarship-forum/topic/edinburgh-global-online-distance-learning-scholarships/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13508, 16, '2023-03-14 11:13:32', '2023-03-14 11:13:32', '<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>University of Edinburgh</strong></p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Online Masters Degree</strong></p>\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Deadline</strong>: 5 June 2023 (Annual)\n\nStudy in:  any Country (online)\n\nCourse starts Sept 2023\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Brief description</strong>: The University of Edinburgh will offer scholarships for eligible part-time distance learning Master’s programmes offered by the University.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nHost Institution(s): University of Edinburgh in United Kingdom\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Level/Field of study:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nAny part-time distance learning Master’s programme offered by the University.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nNumber of Awards: 20\n\n&nbsp;\n\nTarget group: Applicants must be nationals and residents of the countries listed here.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nScholarship value/duration: Each scholarship will cover full tuition fees and will be tenable for the normal duration of the programme of study.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nEligibility: Scholarships will be available for students commencing any part-time distance learning Masters programme offered by the University in session 2023-2024. Applicants must be nationals of the eligible countries (listed above).\n\n&nbsp;\n\nApplicants should already have been offered a place at the University of Edinburgh and should have firmly accepted that offer or be intending to do so.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nApplicants will be asked to include the following within their personal statement: Within your personal statement please include: (a) the specific elements of this programme that attracted you to the University of Edinburgh; (b) confirm how successful completion of this programme will benefit your career and personal development and (c) how this will enable you to contribute to your community/region or country?\n\n&nbsp;\n\nApplication instructions Instructions on how to apply for the scholarship will be found at the official website. The deadline for applications is  5 June 2023.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nIt is important to visit the official website (link found below) for detailed information on how to apply for this scholarship.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nWebsite: Official Scholarship Website: https://www.ed.ac.uk/student-funding/postgraduate/e-learning/online-masters', 'Edinburgh Global Online Distance Learning Scholarships', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13507-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-14 11:13:32', '2023-03-14 11:13:32', '', 13507, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13508', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13509, 16, '2023-03-14 12:34:32', '2023-03-14 12:34:32', 'in 2021 the James webb telescope was launched … a telescope that cost about 10 billion dollars to construct. And in July 2022.. it became operational. It’s been less than a year now and some of its discoveries in the universe have begun to make scientists scratch their heads.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nAll of a sudden, scientists may have to rewrite all the science textbooks about the beginning of the universe.\n\nNow here is the gist, it takes many billions of years for a galaxy like our own Milky Way galaxy with over 100billion stars and many billions of years to form,\n\n&nbsp;\n\nBut, the James Webb Telescope has discovered six galaxies (pictures below) that existed just half a billion years (500 million years) after the Big Bang, and what’s the most puzzling is that they are up to 10 times bigger than our galaxy the Milky Way.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nNow, this should not be possible at all.. there should not be any primordial galaxies that are bigger than the Milky Way and are only 500 million years old. Something is seriously wrong… and scientists are saying they might have to rewrite their theory of the beginning of the universe.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nThe more we discover about the universe, the more we realise how little we know and the James Webb telescope is doing the exact job it was created for .. to challenge our knowledge and ideas about the universe.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nWhat this discovery has shown us is that it’s either galaxies can form much much much faster than they thought OR the Big Bang was not the beginning of the universe as we know it.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nhttps://www.sciencealert.com/astronomers-detect-6-massive-galaxies-so-old-they-cant-be-explained-by-science/amp', 'New Discovery from the Most Powerful Space Telescope', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'new-discovery-from-the-most-powerful-space-telescope', '', '', '2023-03-14 12:34:33', '2023-03-14 12:34:33', '', 13341, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/natural-science/astronomy-forum/topic/new-discovery-from-the-most-powerful-space-telescope/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13510, 16, '2023-03-14 12:34:33', '2023-03-14 12:34:33', 'in 2021 the James webb telescope was launched … a telescope that cost about 10 billion dollars to construct. And in July 2022.. it became operational. It’s been less than a year now and some of its discoveries in the universe have begun to make scientists scratch their heads.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nAll of a sudden, scientists may have to rewrite all the science textbooks about the beginning of the universe.\n\nNow here is the gist, it takes many billions of years for a galaxy like our own Milky Way galaxy with over 100billion stars and many billions of years to form,\n\n&nbsp;\n\nBut, the James Webb Telescope has discovered six galaxies (pictures below) that existed just half a billion years (500 million years) after the Big Bang, and what’s the most puzzling is that they are up to 10 times bigger than our galaxy the Milky Way.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nNow, this should not be possible at all.. there should not be any primordial galaxies that are bigger than the Milky Way and are only 500 million years old. Something is seriously wrong… and scientists are saying they might have to rewrite their theory of the beginning of the universe.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nThe more we discover about the universe, the more we realise how little we know and the James Webb telescope is doing the exact job it was created for .. to challenge our knowledge and ideas about the universe.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nWhat this discovery has shown us is that it’s either galaxies can form much much much faster than they thought OR the Big Bang was not the beginning of the universe as we know it.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nhttps://www.sciencealert.com/astronomers-detect-6-massive-galaxies-so-old-they-cant-be-explained-by-science/amp', 'New Discovery from the Most Powerful Space Telescope', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13509-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-14 12:34:33', '2023-03-14 12:34:33', '', 13509, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13510', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(13511, 16, '2023-03-14 12:47:55', '2023-03-14 12:47:55', 'USA Government\n\nNon-degree\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Deadline</strong>: before 1 Oct (annual)\n\n<strong>Study in</strong>:  USA\n\nProgram starts Apr-Sept 2024\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Brief description: </strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nThe Humphrey Fellowship Program is for experienced professionals interested in strengthening their leadership skills through a mutual exchange of knowledge and understanding about issues of common concern in the U.S. and Fellows’ home countries.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Host Institution</strong>(s):\n\n&nbsp;\n\nFellows are placed at one of the participating USA universities. Fellows are not able to choose which university they will attend. Rather, they are assigned in diverse groups of 7-15 to the most appropriate host institution based on their area of interest and professional field.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Level/Field of study:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nAs a non-degree program, the Fellowship offers valuable opportunities for professional development through selected university courses, attending conferences, networking, and practical work experiences. The eligible program fields are:\n\n&nbsp;\n\n• Agricultural and Rural Development\n\n• Communications/Journalism\n\n• Economic Development\n\n• Educational Administration, Planning and Policy\n\n• Finance and Banking\n\n• Higher Education Administration\n\n• HIV/AIDS Policy and Prevention\n\n• Human Resource Management\n\n• Law and Human Rights\n\n• Natural Resources, Environmental Policy, and Climate Change\n\n• Public Health Policy and Management\n\n•  Public Policy Analysis and Public Administration\n\n•  Substance Abuse Education, Treatment and Prevention\n\n•  Teaching of English as a Foreign Language\n\n•  Technology Policy and Management\n\n•  Trafficking in Persons Policy and Prevention\n\n•  Urban and Regional Planning\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Number of Awards:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nApproximately 200 Fellowships are awarded annually.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Target group:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nCitizens of eligible countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and Eurasia, Middle East and North Africa, East Asia and Pacific, South and Central Asia, and Western Hemisphere.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Scholarship value/inclusions:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nThe Fellowship provides for:\n\n&nbsp;\n\n•  Payment of tuition and fees at the assigned host university;\n\n•  Pre-academic English language training, if required;\n\n•  A maintenance (living) allowance, including a one-time settling-in allowance;\n\n•  Accident and sickness coverage;\n\n•  A book allowance;\n\n•  A one-time computer subsidy;\n\n• Air travel (international travel to and from the U.S. for the program and domestic travel to required program events);\n\n• A Professional Development allowance for professional activities, such as field trips, professional visits and conferences.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Eligibility:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nThe applicant must have:\n\n&nbsp;\n\n•  An undergraduate (first university) degree,\n\n•  A minimum of five years of full-time, professional experience\n\n•  Limited or no prior experience in the United States,\n\n•  Demonstrated leadership qualities,\n\n•  A record of public service in the community, and\n\n•  English language ability\n\n&nbsp;\n\nPlease contact the U.S. Embassy, Public Affairs Section or Fulbright Commission in your country of residence to learn about possible specific program requirements (link found below).\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Application instructions:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nApplication deadlines vary by country but falls around May to September each year. The nominating U.S. Embassy or Binational Fulbright Commission will advise you of its internal deadline for receiving applications. Embassies and Commissions must submit their nominations to the Institute of International Education office in Washington, DC by 1 October.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nPlease contact the Public Affairs Section of the U.S. Embassy or Bi-national Fulbright Commission in your country for more information about application procedures.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nIt is important to read the FAQs and visit the official website (link found below) for detailed information on how to apply for this scholarship.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Website:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nOfficial Scholarship Website:  http://humphreyfellowship.org/', 'Hubert Humphrey Fellowships in USA for International Students', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'hubert-humphrey-fellowships-in-usa-for-international-students', '', '', '2023-03-14 12:47:55', '2023-03-14 12:47:55', '', 13378, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/general/scholarship-forum/topic/hubert-humphrey-fellowships-in-usa-for-international-students/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13512, 16, '2023-03-14 12:47:55', '2023-03-14 12:47:55', 'USA Government\n\nNon-degree\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Deadline</strong>: before 1 Oct (annual)\n\n<strong>Study in</strong>:  USA\n\nProgram starts Apr-Sept 2024\n\n&nbsp;\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Brief description: </strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nThe Humphrey Fellowship Program is for experienced professionals interested in strengthening their leadership skills through a mutual exchange of knowledge and understanding about issues of common concern in the U.S. and Fellows’ home countries.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Host Institution</strong>(s):\n\n&nbsp;\n\nFellows are placed at one of the participating USA universities. Fellows are not able to choose which university they will attend. Rather, they are assigned in diverse groups of 7-15 to the most appropriate host institution based on their area of interest and professional field.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Level/Field of study:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nAs a non-degree program, the Fellowship offers valuable opportunities for professional development through selected university courses, attending conferences, networking, and practical work experiences. The eligible program fields are:\n\n&nbsp;\n\n• Agricultural and Rural Development\n\n• Communications/Journalism\n\n• Economic Development\n\n• Educational Administration, Planning and Policy\n\n• Finance and Banking\n\n• Higher Education Administration\n\n• HIV/AIDS Policy and Prevention\n\n• Human Resource Management\n\n• Law and Human Rights\n\n• Natural Resources, Environmental Policy, and Climate Change\n\n• Public Health Policy and Management\n\n•  Public Policy Analysis and Public Administration\n\n•  Substance Abuse Education, Treatment and Prevention\n\n•  Teaching of English as a Foreign Language\n\n•  Technology Policy and Management\n\n•  Trafficking in Persons Policy and Prevention\n\n•  Urban and Regional Planning\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Number of Awards:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nApproximately 200 Fellowships are awarded annually.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Target group:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nCitizens of eligible countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and Eurasia, Middle East and North Africa, East Asia and Pacific, South and Central Asia, and Western Hemisphere.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Scholarship value/inclusions:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nThe Fellowship provides for:\n\n&nbsp;\n\n•  Payment of tuition and fees at the assigned host university;\n\n•  Pre-academic English language training, if required;\n\n•  A maintenance (living) allowance, including a one-time settling-in allowance;\n\n•  Accident and sickness coverage;\n\n•  A book allowance;\n\n•  A one-time computer subsidy;\n\n• Air travel (international travel to and from the U.S. for the program and domestic travel to required program events);\n\n• A Professional Development allowance for professional activities, such as field trips, professional visits and conferences.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Eligibility:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nThe applicant must have:\n\n&nbsp;\n\n•  An undergraduate (first university) degree,\n\n•  A minimum of five years of full-time, professional experience\n\n•  Limited or no prior experience in the United States,\n\n•  Demonstrated leadership qualities,\n\n•  A record of public service in the community, and\n\n•  English language ability\n\n&nbsp;\n\nPlease contact the U.S. Embassy, Public Affairs Section or Fulbright Commission in your country of residence to learn about possible specific program requirements (link found below).\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Application instructions:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nApplication deadlines vary by country but falls around May to September each year. The nominating U.S. Embassy or Binational Fulbright Commission will advise you of its internal deadline for receiving applications. Embassies and Commissions must submit their nominations to the Institute of International Education office in Washington, DC by 1 October.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nPlease contact the Public Affairs Section of the U.S. Embassy or Bi-national Fulbright Commission in your country for more information about application procedures.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nIt is important to read the FAQs and visit the official website (link found below) for detailed information on how to apply for this scholarship.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n<strong>Website:</strong>\n\n&nbsp;\n\nOfficial Scholarship Website:  http://humphreyfellowship.org/', 'Hubert Humphrey Fellowships in USA for International Students', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13511-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-14 12:47:55', '2023-03-14 12:47:55', '', 13511, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13512', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13513, 1, '2023-03-15 08:43:17', '2023-03-15 08:43:17', '&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\">Online Teachers’ Community creates avenues for teachers to meet their colleagues all over the world. Teachers create forums and groups, and initiate new topics or participate in education-related issues. Join us today</a></p>\r\n\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Most Recent Topics</span></h3>\r\n[bbp-topic-index]\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\">Online Teachers’ Community Forum</a></span></h3>\r\n[bbp-forum-index]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;', 'Forum Index', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'forum-index', '', '', '2023-03-21 21:02:03', '2023-03-21 21:02:03', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?page_id=13513', 0, 'page', '', 0),
(13520, 1, '2023-03-15 09:20:46', '2023-03-15 09:20:46', '<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\">Online Teachers’ Community creates avenues for teachers to meet their colleagues all over the world. Teachers create forums and groups, and initiate new topics or participate in education-related issues. Join us today</a></p>\r\n\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Most Recent Topics</span></h3>\r\n[bbp-topic-index]\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\">Online Teachers’ Community Forum</a></span></h3>\r\n[bbp-forum-index]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;', 'Forum Index', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13513-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-15 09:20:46', '2023-03-15 09:20:46', '', 13513, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13520', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13521, 1, '2023-03-15 09:23:56', '2023-03-15 09:23:56', '&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\">Online Teachers’ Community creates avenues for teachers to meet their colleagues all over the world. Teachers create forums and groups, and initiate new topics or participate in education-related issues. Join us today</a></p>\r\n\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Most Recent Topics</span></h3>\r\n[bbp-topic-index]\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: center;\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link wp-element-button\">Online Teachers’ Community Forum</a></span></h3>\r\n[bbp-forum-index]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;', 'Forum Index', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13513-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-15 09:23:56', '2023-03-15 09:23:56', '', 13513, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13521', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13522, 1, '2023-03-15 09:28:26', '2023-03-15 09:28:26', '', 'education and Politics Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13374-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-15 09:28:26', '2023-03-15 09:28:26', '', 13374, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13522', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13523, 1, '2023-03-15 09:28:55', '2023-03-15 09:28:55', '', 'education and Politics Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13374-autosave-v1', '', '', '2023-03-15 09:28:55', '2023-03-15 09:28:55', '', 13374, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13523', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13524, 23, '2023-03-16 13:56:54', '2023-03-16 13:56:54', '<h2 style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Helping and Coping With Pupils With ADHD (Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder)</strong></h2>\r\nDefinition: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by excessive amounts of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are pervasive, impairing in multiple contexts, and otherwise age-inappropriate.\r\n<h2>IDENTIFICATION OF ADHD</h2>\r\n<h3>Symptoms in children and teenagers</h3>\r\nThe symptoms of ADHD in children and teenagers are well-defined, and they\'re usually noticeable before the age of 6. They occur in more than 1 situation, such as at home and at school.\r\n\r\nChildren may have symptoms of both inattentiveness and hyperactivity and impulsiveness, or they may have symptoms of just 1 of these types of behaviour.\r\n<h3>Inattentiveness (difficulty concentrating and focusing)</h3>\r\n<strong>The main signs of inattentiveness are:</strong>\r\n\r\nhaving a short attention span and being easily distracted\r\n\r\nmaking careless mistakes – for example, in schoolwork\r\n\r\nappearing forgetful or losing things\r\n\r\nbeing unable to stick to tasks that are tedious or time-consuming\r\n\r\nappearing to be unable to listen to or carry out instructions\r\n\r\nconstantly changing activity or task\r\n\r\nhaving difficulty organising tasks\r\n<h3>Hyperactivity and impulsiveness</h3>\r\n<strong>The main signs of hyperactivity and impulsiveness are:</strong>\r\n\r\nbeing unable to sit still, especially in calm or quiet surroundings\r\n\r\nconstantly fidgeting\r\n\r\nbeing unable to concentrate on tasks\r\n\r\nexcessive physical movement\r\n\r\nexcessive talking\r\n\r\nbeing unable to wait their turn\r\n\r\nacting without thinking\r\n\r\ninterrupting conversations\r\n\r\nlittle or no sense of danger\r\n\r\nThese symptoms can cause significant problems in a child\'s life, such as underachievement at school, poor social interaction with other children and adults, and problems with discipline.\r\n<h2>Ways to Manage Children with ADHD</h2>\r\n<h3>Plan the day</h3>\r\nPlan the day so your child knows what to expect. Set routines can make a difference to how a child with ADHD copes with everyday life.\r\n\r\nFor example, if your child has to get ready for school, break it down into structured steps, so they know exactly what they need to do.\r\n<h3>Set clear boundaries</h3>\r\nMake sure everyone knows what behaviour is expected, and reinforce positive behaviour with immediate praise or rewards. Be clear, using enforceable consequences, such as taking away a privilege, if boundaries are overstepped and follow these through consistently.\r\n<h3>Be positive</h3>\r\nGive specific praise. Instead of saying a general: \"Thanks for doing that,\" you could say: \"You washed the dishes really well. Thank you.\"\r\n\r\nThis will make it clear to your child that you\'re pleased and why.\r\n<h3>Giving instructions</h3>\r\nIf you\'re asking your child to do something, give brief instructions and be specific. Instead of asking: \"Can you tidy your bedroom?\" say: \"Please put your toys into the box and put the books back onto the shelf.\"\r\n\r\nThis makes it clearer what your child needs to do and creates opportunities for praise when they get it right.\r\n<h3>Incentive scheme</h3>\r\nSet up your own incentive scheme using a points or star chart, so good behaviour can earn a privilege. For example, behaving well on a shopping trip will earn your child time on the computer or some sort of game.\r\n\r\nInvolve your child in it and allow them to help decide what the privileges will be.\r\n\r\nThese charts need regular changes or they become boring. Targets should be:\r\n\r\nimmediate – for example, daily\r\n\r\nintermediate – for example, weekly\r\n\r\nlong-term – for example, 3-monthly\r\n\r\nTry to focus on just 1 or 2 behaviours at a time.\r\n<h3>Intervene early</h3>\r\nWatch for warning signs. If your child looks like they\'re becoming frustrated, overstimulated and about to lose self-control, intervene.\r\n\r\nDistract your child, if possible, by taking them away from the situation. This may calm them down.\r\n<h3>Social situations</h3>\r\nKeep social situations short and sweet. Invite friends to play, but keep playtimes short so your child does not lose self-control. Do not aim to do this when your child is feeling tired or hungry, such as after a day at school.\r\n<h3>Exercise</h3>\r\nMake sure your child gets lots of physical activity during the day. Walking, skipping and playing sport can help your child wear themselves out and improve their quality of sleep.\r\n\r\nMake sure they\'re not doing anything too strenuous or exciting near to bedtime.\r\n<h3>Eating</h3>\r\nKeep an eye on what your child eats. If your child is hyperactive after eating certain foods, which may contain additives or caffeine, keep a diary of these and discuss them with a GP.\r\n<h3>Bedtime</h3>\r\nStick to a routine. Make sure your child goes to bed at the same time each night and gets up at the same time in the morning.\r\n\r\nAvoid overstimulating activities in the hours before bedtime, such as computer games or watching TV.\r\n<h3>Night time</h3>\r\nSleep problems and ADHD can be a vicious circle. ADHD can lead to sleep problems, which in turn can make symptoms worse.\r\n\r\nMany children with ADHD will repeatedly get up after being put to bed and have interrupted sleep patterns. Trying a sleep-friendly routine can help your child and make bedtime less of a battleground.', 'Helping and Coping With Pupils With ADHD (Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Diso', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'helping-and-coping-with-pupils-with-adhd-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-diso', '', '', '2023-03-16 19:39:54', '2023-03-16 19:39:54', '', 13429, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/education-specific-forums/educational-psychology-forum/topic/helping-and-coping-with-pupils-with-adhd-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-diso/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13526, 1, '2023-03-16 19:39:48', '2023-03-16 19:39:48', '<h2 style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Helping and Coping With Pupils With ADHD (Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder)</strong></h2>\nDefinition: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by excessive amounts of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are pervasive, impairing in multiple contexts, and otherwise age-inappropriate.\n<h2>IDENTIFICATION OF ADHD</h2>\n<h3>Symptoms in children and teenagers</h3>\nThe symptoms of ADHD in children and teenagers are well-defined, and they\'re usually noticeable before the age of 6. They occur in more than 1 situation, such as at home and at school.\n\nChildren may have symptoms of both inattentiveness and hyperactivity and impulsiveness, or they may have symptoms of just 1 of these types of behaviour.\n<h3>Inattentiveness (difficulty concentrating and focusing)</h3>\n<strong>The main signs of inattentiveness are:</strong>\n\nhaving a short attention span and being easily distracted\n\nmaking careless mistakes – for example, in schoolwork\n\nappearing forgetful or losing things\n\nbeing unable to stick to tasks that are tedious or time-consuming\n\nappearing to be unable to listen to or carry out instructions\n\nconstantly changing activity or task\n\nhaving difficulty organising tasks\n<h3>Hyperactivity and impulsiveness</h3>\n<strong>The main signs of hyperactivity and impulsiveness are:</strong>\n\nbeing unable to sit still, especially in calm or quiet surroundings\n\nconstantly fidgeting\n\nbeing unable to concentrate on tasks\n\nexcessive physical movement\n\nexcessive talking\n\nbeing unable to wait their turn\n\nacting without thinking\n\ninterrupting conversations\n\nlittle or no sense of danger\n\nThese symptoms can cause significant problems in a child\'s life, such as underachievement at school, poor social interaction with other children and adults, and problems with discipline.\n<h2>Ways to Manage Children with ADHD</h2>\n<h3>Plan the day</h3>\nPlan the day so your child knows what to expect. Set routines can make a difference to how a child with ADHD copes with everyday life.\n\nFor example, if your child has to get ready for school, break it down into structured steps, so they know exactly what they need to do.\n<h3>Set clear boundaries</h3>\nMake sure everyone knows what behaviour is expected, and reinforce positive behaviour with immediate praise or rewards. Be clear, using enforceable consequences, such as taking away a privilege, if boundaries are overstepped and follow these through consistently.\n<h3>Be positive</h3>\nGive specific praise. Instead of saying a general: \"Thanks for doing that,\" you could say: \"You washed the dishes really well. Thank you.\"\n\nThis will make it clear to your child that you\'re pleased and why.\n<h3>Giving instructions</h3>\nIf you\'re asking your child to do something, give brief instructions and be specific. Instead of asking: \"Can you tidy your bedroom?\" say: \"Please put your toys into the box and put the books back onto the shelf.\"\n\nThis makes it clearer what your child needs to do and creates opportunities for praise when they get it right.\n<h3>Incentive scheme</h3>\nSet up your own incentive scheme using a points or star chart, so good behaviour can earn a privilege. For example, behaving well on a shopping trip will earn your child time on the computer or some sort of game.\n\nInvolve your child in it and allow them to help decide what the privileges will be.\n\nThese charts need regular changes or they become boring. Targets should be:\n\nimmediate – for example, daily\n\nintermediate – for example, weekly\n\nlong-term – for example, 3-monthly\n\nTry to focus on just 1 or 2 behaviours at a time.\n<h3>Intervene early</h3>\nWatch for warning signs. If your child looks like they\'re becoming frustrated, overstimulated and about to lose self-control, intervene.\n\nDistract your child, if possible, by taking them away from the situation. This may calm them down.\n<h3>Social situations</h3>\nKeep social situations short and sweet. Invite friends to play, but keep playtimes short so your child does not lose self-control. Do not aim to do this when your child is feeling tired or hungry, such as after a day at school.\n<h3>Exercise</h3>\nMake sure your child gets lots of physical activity during the day. Walking, skipping and playing sport can help your child wear themselves out and improve their quality of sleep.\n\nMake sure they\'re not doing anything too strenuous or exciting near to bedtime.\n<h3>Eating</h3>\nKeep an eye on what your child eats. If your child is hyperactive after eating certain foods, which may contain additives or caffeine, keep a diary of these and discuss them with a GP.\n<h3>Bedtime</h3>\nStick to a routine. Make sure your child goes to bed at the same time each night and gets up at the same time in the morning.\n\nAvoid overstimulating activities in the hours before bedtime, such as computer games or watching TV.\n<h3>Night time</h3>\nSleep problems and ADHD can be a vicious circle. ADHD can lead to sleep problems, which in turn can make symptoms worse.\n\nMany children with ADHD will repeatedly get up after being put to bed and have interrupted sleep patterns. Trying a sleep-friendly routine can help your child and make bedtime less of a battleground.', 'Helping and Coping With Pupils With ADHD (Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Diso', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13524-autosave-v1', '', '', '2023-03-16 19:39:48', '2023-03-16 19:39:48', '', 13524, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13526', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13528, 1, '2023-03-16 19:12:28', '2023-03-16 19:12:28', '<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Helping and Coping With Pupils With ADHD (Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder)</strong></p>\r\nDefinition: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by excessive amounts of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are pervasive, impairing in multiple contexts, and otherwise age-inappropriate.\r\n<h2>IDENTIFICATION OF ADHD</h2>\r\n<h3>Symptoms in children and teenagers</h3>\r\nThe symptoms of ADHD in children and teenagers are well-defined, and they\'re usually noticeable before the age of 6. They occur in more than 1 situation, such as at home and at school.\r\n\r\nChildren may have symptoms of both inattentiveness and hyperactivity and impulsiveness, or they may have symptoms of just 1 of these types of behaviour.\r\n\r\nInattentiveness (difficulty concentrating and focusing)\r\n\r\nThe main signs of inattentiveness are:\r\n\r\nhaving a short attention span and being easily distracted\r\n\r\nmaking careless mistakes – for example, in schoolwork\r\n\r\nappearing forgetful or losing things\r\n\r\nbeing unable to stick to tasks that are tedious or time-consuming\r\n\r\nappearing to be unable to listen to or carry out instructions\r\n\r\nconstantly changing activity or task\r\n\r\nhaving difficulty organising tasks\r\n\r\nHyperactivity and impulsiveness\r\n\r\nThe main signs of hyperactivity and impulsiveness are:\r\n\r\nbeing unable to sit still, especially in calm or quiet surroundings\r\n\r\nconstantly fidgeting\r\n\r\nbeing unable to concentrate on tasks\r\n\r\nexcessive physical movement\r\n\r\nexcessive talking\r\n\r\nbeing unable to wait their turn\r\n\r\nacting without thinking\r\n\r\ninterrupting conversations\r\n\r\nlittle or no sense of danger\r\n\r\nThese symptoms can cause significant problems in a child\'s life, such as underachievement at school, poor social interaction with other children and adults, and problems with discipline.\r\n<h2>Ways to Manage Children with ADHD</h2>\r\n<h3>Plan the day</h3>\r\nPlan the day so your child knows what to expect. Set routines can make a difference to how a child with ADHD copes with everyday life.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nFor example, if your child has to get ready for school, break it down into structured steps, so they know exactly what they need to do.\r\n<h3>Set clear boundaries</h3>\r\nMake sure everyone knows what behaviour is expected, and reinforce positive behaviour with immediate praise or rewards. Be clear, using enforceable consequences, such as taking away a privilege, if boundaries are overstepped and follow these through consistently.\r\n<h3>Be positive</h3>\r\nGive specific praise. Instead of saying a general: \"Thanks for doing that,\" you could say: \"You washed the dishes really well. Thank you.\"\r\n\r\nThis will make it clear to your child that you\'re pleased and why.\r\n<h3>Giving instructions</h3>\r\nIf you\'re asking your child to do something, give brief instructions and be specific. Instead of asking: \"Can you tidy your bedroom?\" say: \"Please put your toys into the box and put the books back onto the shelf.\"\r\n\r\nThis makes it clearer what your child needs to do and creates opportunities for praise when they get it right.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nIncentive scheme\r\n\r\nSet up your own incentive scheme using a points or star chart, so good behaviour can earn a privilege. For example, behaving well on a shopping trip will earn your child time on the computer or some sort of game.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nInvolve your child in it and allow them to help decide what the privileges will be.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nThese charts need regular changes or they become boring. Targets should be:\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nimmediate – for example, daily\r\n\r\nintermediate – for example, weekly\r\n\r\nlong-term – for example, 3-monthly\r\n\r\nTry to focus on just 1 or 2 behaviours at a time.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nIntervene early\r\n\r\nWatch for warning signs. If your child looks like they\'re becoming frustrated, overstimulated and about to lose self-control, intervene.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nDistract your child, if possible, by taking them away from the situation. This may calm them down.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nSocial situations\r\n\r\nKeep social situations short and sweet. Invite friends to play, but keep playtimes short so your child does not lose self-control. Do not aim to do this when your child is feeling tired or hungry, such as after a day at school.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nExercise\r\n\r\nMake sure your child gets lots of physical activity during the day. Walking, skipping and playing sport can help your child wear themselves out and improve their quality of sleep.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nMake sure they\'re not doing anything too strenuous or exciting near to bedtime.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nEating\r\n\r\nKeep an eye on what your child eats. If your child is hyperactive after eating certain foods, which may contain additives or caffeine, keep a diary of these and discuss them with a GP.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nBedtime\r\n\r\nStick to a routine. Make sure your child goes to bed at the same time each night and gets up at the same time in the morning.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nAvoid overstimulating activities in the hours before bedtime, such as computer games or watching TV.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNight time\r\n\r\nSleep problems and ADHD can be a vicious circle. ADHD can lead to sleep problems, which in turn can make symptoms worse.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nMany children with ADHD will repeatedly get up after being put to bed and have interrupted sleep patterns. 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(13529, 1, '2023-03-16 19:39:53', '2023-03-16 19:39:53', '<h2 style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Helping and Coping With Pupils With ADHD (Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder)</strong></h2>\r\nDefinition: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by excessive amounts of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are pervasive, impairing in multiple contexts, and otherwise age-inappropriate.\r\n<h2>IDENTIFICATION OF ADHD</h2>\r\n<h3>Symptoms in children and teenagers</h3>\r\nThe symptoms of ADHD in children and teenagers are well-defined, and they\'re usually noticeable before the age of 6. They occur in more than 1 situation, such as at home and at school.\r\n\r\nChildren may have symptoms of both inattentiveness and hyperactivity and impulsiveness, or they may have symptoms of just 1 of these types of behaviour.\r\n<h3>Inattentiveness (difficulty concentrating and focusing)</h3>\r\n<strong>The main signs of inattentiveness are:</strong>\r\n\r\nhaving a short attention span and being easily distracted\r\n\r\nmaking careless mistakes – for example, in schoolwork\r\n\r\nappearing forgetful or losing things\r\n\r\nbeing unable to stick to tasks that are tedious or time-consuming\r\n\r\nappearing to be unable to listen to or carry out instructions\r\n\r\nconstantly changing activity or task\r\n\r\nhaving difficulty organising tasks\r\n<h3>Hyperactivity and impulsiveness</h3>\r\n<strong>The main signs of hyperactivity and impulsiveness are:</strong>\r\n\r\nbeing unable to sit still, especially in calm or quiet surroundings\r\n\r\nconstantly fidgeting\r\n\r\nbeing unable to concentrate on tasks\r\n\r\nexcessive physical movement\r\n\r\nexcessive talking\r\n\r\nbeing unable to wait their turn\r\n\r\nacting without thinking\r\n\r\ninterrupting conversations\r\n\r\nlittle or no sense of danger\r\n\r\nThese symptoms can cause significant problems in a child\'s life, such as underachievement at school, poor social interaction with other children and adults, and problems with discipline.\r\n<h2>Ways to Manage Children with ADHD</h2>\r\n<h3>Plan the day</h3>\r\nPlan the day so your child knows what to expect. Set routines can make a difference to how a child with ADHD copes with everyday life.\r\n\r\nFor example, if your child has to get ready for school, break it down into structured steps, so they know exactly what they need to do.\r\n<h3>Set clear boundaries</h3>\r\nMake sure everyone knows what behaviour is expected, and reinforce positive behaviour with immediate praise or rewards. Be clear, using enforceable consequences, such as taking away a privilege, if boundaries are overstepped and follow these through consistently.\r\n<h3>Be positive</h3>\r\nGive specific praise. Instead of saying a general: \"Thanks for doing that,\" you could say: \"You washed the dishes really well. Thank you.\"\r\n\r\nThis will make it clear to your child that you\'re pleased and why.\r\n<h3>Giving instructions</h3>\r\nIf you\'re asking your child to do something, give brief instructions and be specific. Instead of asking: \"Can you tidy your bedroom?\" say: \"Please put your toys into the box and put the books back onto the shelf.\"\r\n\r\nThis makes it clearer what your child needs to do and creates opportunities for praise when they get it right.\r\n<h3>Incentive scheme</h3>\r\nSet up your own incentive scheme using a points or star chart, so good behaviour can earn a privilege. For example, behaving well on a shopping trip will earn your child time on the computer or some sort of game.\r\n\r\nInvolve your child in it and allow them to help decide what the privileges will be.\r\n\r\nThese charts need regular changes or they become boring. Targets should be:\r\n\r\nimmediate – for example, daily\r\n\r\nintermediate – for example, weekly\r\n\r\nlong-term – for example, 3-monthly\r\n\r\nTry to focus on just 1 or 2 behaviours at a time.\r\n<h3>Intervene early</h3>\r\nWatch for warning signs. If your child looks like they\'re becoming frustrated, overstimulated and about to lose self-control, intervene.\r\n\r\nDistract your child, if possible, by taking them away from the situation. This may calm them down.\r\n<h3>Social situations</h3>\r\nKeep social situations short and sweet. Invite friends to play, but keep playtimes short so your child does not lose self-control. Do not aim to do this when your child is feeling tired or hungry, such as after a day at school.\r\n<h3>Exercise</h3>\r\nMake sure your child gets lots of physical activity during the day. Walking, skipping and playing sport can help your child wear themselves out and improve their quality of sleep.\r\n\r\nMake sure they\'re not doing anything too strenuous or exciting near to bedtime.\r\n<h3>Eating</h3>\r\nKeep an eye on what your child eats. If your child is hyperactive after eating certain foods, which may contain additives or caffeine, keep a diary of these and discuss them with a GP.\r\n<h3>Bedtime</h3>\r\nStick to a routine. Make sure your child goes to bed at the same time each night and gets up at the same time in the morning.\r\n\r\nAvoid overstimulating activities in the hours before bedtime, such as computer games or watching TV.\r\n<h3>Night time</h3>\r\nSleep problems and ADHD can be a vicious circle. ADHD can lead to sleep problems, which in turn can make symptoms worse.\r\n\r\nMany children with ADHD will repeatedly get up after being put to bed and have interrupted sleep patterns. 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(13562, 1, '2023-03-26 14:38:49', '2023-03-26 14:38:49', '[wp_ulike_pro_account_form]', 'Edit Account', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'edit-account', '', '', '2023-03-26 14:38:49', '2023-03-26 14:38:49', '', 0, 'https://teachers.com.ng/edit-account/', 0, 'page', '', 0),
(13563, 18, '2023-03-26 18:44:29', '2023-03-26 18:44:29', '<h2 class=\"title-name\" style=\"line-height: normal;font-size: 21.25px;color: #000000;font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif\">THE LAME MAN</h2>\n<p style=\"font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 17px;text-align: justify;color: #566375\">One day two friends saw a man who was limping. One of them said that the man must have born lame. The other said that he must have met with an accident. They both started arguing over the matter.\n\nThe argument got so heated up that finally they went to the man and asked him the reason for his limping.\n\nThe man laughed and replied that he was limping as one of his sandals had broken. Both the friends walked away with an embarrassed face.\n\n</p>\n\n<div style=\"color: #000000;font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 17px;text-align: center\">The End..</div>', 'The Lame Man - We May Both Be Wrong', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'the-lame-man-we-may-both-be-wrong', '', '', '2023-03-26 18:44:29', '2023-03-26 18:44:29', '', 13172, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/humanities/history-forum/topic/the-lame-man-we-may-both-be-wrong/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13564, 18, '2023-03-26 19:06:58', '2023-03-26 19:06:58', '<h2 class=\"title-name\" style=\"line-height: normal;font-size: 21.25px;color: #000000;font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif\">Always Stay Alert</h2>\n<p style=\"color: #000000;font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 17px;text-align: justify\">Once upon a time there was a lion that grew so old that he was unable to kill any prey for his food. So, he said to himself, I must do something to stay my stomach else I will die of starvation.</p>\n<p style=\"color: #000000;font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 17px;text-align: justify\">He kept thinking and thinking and at last an idea clicked him. He decided to lie down in the cave pretending to be ill and then who-so-ever will come to inquire about his health, will become his prey. The old lion put his wicked plan into practice and it started working. Many of his well-wishers got killed. But evil is short lived.</p>\n<p style=\"color: #000000;font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 17px;text-align: justify\">One day, a fox came to visit the ailing lion. As foxes are clever by nature, the fox stood at the mouth of the cave and looked about. His sixth sense worked and he came to know the reality. So, he called out to the lion from outside and said, How are you, sir?</p>\n<p style=\"color: #000000;font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 17px;text-align: justify\">The lion replied, I am not feeling well at all. But why don’t you come inside?</p>\n<p style=\"color: #000000;font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 17px;text-align: justify\">Then the fox replied, I would love to come in, sir! But on seeing, all foot prints going to your cave and none coming out, I would be foolish enough to come in.</p>\n<p style=\"color: #000000;font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;font-size: 17px;text-align: justify\">Saying so, the fox went to alert the other animals.</p>\n\n<blockquote style=\"font-family: Georgia, serif;font-style: italic;width: 284.75px;margin: 0.7em 0px 0px 30px;padding: 1px 0px 1px 5px;line-height: 1.45;color: #383838;border-left: 5px solid #cccccc;background-image: initial;background-position: initial;background-size: initial;background-attachment: initial;font-size: 17px;text-align: justify\">Moral: Always Keep Your Eyes Open and Stay Alert before Walking in Any Situation.</blockquote>', 'Always Stay Alert', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'always-stay-alert', '', '', '2023-03-26 19:06:58', '2023-03-26 19:06:58', '', 13172, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/humanities/history-forum/topic/always-stay-alert/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13568, 1, '2023-03-27 12:15:06', '2023-03-27 12:15:06', 'History (derived from Ancient Greek ἱστορία (historía) \'inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation\') is the systematic study and documentation of human activity. The time period of events before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. \"History\" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these events. Historians seek knowledge of the past using historical sources such as written documents, oral accounts, art and material artifacts, and ecological markers. History is not complete and still has debatable mysteries.', 'History and Stories Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13172-autosave-v1', '', '', '2023-03-27 12:15:06', '2023-03-27 12:15:06', '', 13172, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13568', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13569, 1, '2023-03-27 12:15:45', '2023-03-27 12:15:45', 'History (derived from Ancient Greek ἱστορία (historía) \'inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation\') is the systematic study and documentation of human activity. The time period of events before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. \"History\" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these events. Historians seek knowledge of the past using historical sources such as written documents, oral accounts, art and material artifacts, and ecological markers. History is not complete and still has debatable mysteries.', 'History and Stories Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13172-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-27 12:15:45', '2023-03-27 12:15:45', '', 13172, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13569', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(13572, 1, '2023-03-27 20:32:11', '2023-03-27 20:32:11', 'If you are just preparing to enter the ranks of professional teachers and you are not a recent college graduate, its easy to feel a bit insecure and ask that question, \"Can you teach if you are old?\"\n\n&nbsp;\n\nIts a fair question even if you are not so far along in life that you consider yourself to be \"old\".  But it is easy to feel old if you are a middle aged or senior adult among 20 year olds in teacher college and if the competition for the teaching jobs are kids that could be your own sons or daughters.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nThere are a lot of jobs where there is a noticeable age bias against older workers.  In the business world, sometimes companies prefer to hire younger workers because they work cheap and if they work out, there is such a longer career life ahead of them.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nBut even in the business setting, many forward thinking employers are beginning to realize that the ranks of older workers contain a group of workers who are stable, hard working and devoted employees.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nSo too schools are realizing more and more that hiring an older worker is not a disadvantage at all but that you bring a lot of good with you that the school should be thrilled to have.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nIf anything the profession of teaching is a perfect environment for someone who has seen a bit of life and who has matured and perhaps raised children of their own.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nTeaching full time while rewarding can be a huge challenge because it is sometimes hard to establish your authority in the class room and there are so many ways for a disruption to hurt the flow of teaching that is so important to accomplish your academic goals each day.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nAn older worker is less prone to panic about disruptions or sudden problems that might come up as you teach and you have the experience and maturity to handle the problem efficiently without upsetting the rest of the class and get everyone back on task quickly.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nIt could be that one concern those who hire new teachers might have with an older worker is energy. Younger workers are able to keep up physically with children and they need to know that you won\'t tire during a long school day and that you have the physical stamina to get through a school day and come back for more tomorrow.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nThere are a number of ways you can demonstrate that you are in shape and up to the challenge of teaching.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nYou can put on a show of energy and enthusiasm during the interview.  Or you could go so far as to offer to substitute teach or be a teacher assistant for a day so the administrator can witness first hand our energy and ability to \"keep up\" with those kiddos.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nThere is a good chance that not only will you encounter no age based bias or discrimination from school administrators, you will find that they already have a number of older teachers on staff so they know the value the school gets from that experience and wisdom.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nBut the relationship that may give you more concern is whether the students can accept an older teacher and give you the same respect and regard that they would give to someone just out of college.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nIt may come as the biggest surprise of them all that children and even teenagers really do not mind older teachers or older people for that matter.  After all, to a child, every adult is  an older teacher so they may not even notice that you are 20 years older than their last teacher.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nteach\n\n&nbsp;\n\nTo a kid, old is old so what\'s the difference? Moreover, children have relationships with parents, uncles and aunts and grandparents that are loving and respectful so if they lump you in with those role models, you have it made.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nWhat students don\'t like are older people who try to deny that they are old, who are ashamed of their age or who try to act younger than they are. Youth crave honesty.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nAnd youth are also quite aware that older age awaits them down the road so the last thing they want to see is you showing shame or discomfort because of your age.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nBy being honest about your age with the kids, they will embrace you easily and you will have no difficulty teaching them.', 'Can You Teach if You Are Old?', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'can-you-teach-if-you-are-old', '', '', '2023-03-27 20:32:11', '2023-03-27 20:32:11', '', 13427, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/education-specific-forums/educational-philosophy-forum/topic/can-you-teach-if-you-are-old/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13573, 19, '2023-03-27 20:57:14', '2023-03-27 20:57:14', 'The software tool, Microsoft PowerPoint is one of the most versatile tools that the huge software giant has given to us. Business has already discovered the power of this amazing tool.\n\nBut there are a lot of lessons plans that would benefit from the tools and resources that PowerPoint can offer to make your lessons more fun and interesting for your students. But you have to know how to use it for maximum advantage even before you start designing your slide slow.\n\nAlmost everybody has seen PowerPoint used and witnessed what a fun and creative presentation tool it is.  You can take classes to learn how to use PowerPoint and to tap the power of the amazing animation and graphics tools it has to present information to your students.\n\nThis is why PowerPoint is such a great tool for teaching.  It gives you the chance to supplement what might have been a boring lecture with some colorful and quickly moving slides that will keep your kids riveted throughout your presentation.\n\nPowerPoint is also easy to use. The genius of Microsoft is that they do facilitate us in using this great tool by making it so easy to take advantage of all of PowerPoint\'s fantastic tools.\n\nIn a classroom setting, PowerPoint alone could represent one of the biggest revolutions in how to present information to students in a long time.\n\nBut it’s a good idea to think through how to use the tool and have some ground rules for how to use it so you get the maximum value from PowerPoint without becoming abusive of its powers.\n\nWhen designing the way you will use PowerPoint as a teaching tool, don’t give in to the temptation to let the slideshow do all the work of teaching for you.\n\nRemember that PowerPoint is great as long as it is a supplement to your lecture or presentation to your students.\n\nThe best kind of PowerPoint slide presentation uses bullet triggers to take you through your lecture but you do all the work of actually teaching your students. When it comes to putting a large amount of information on a PowerPoint slide, in a word, don\'t.\n\nThis will lead to reading the slide presentation to your students which will become boring causing you to lose the \"punch\" you hoped PowerPoint would bring to this lesson plan.\n\nAnother tip when working with PowerPoint in an educational setting is to never turn your back on your students.  You need to have eye contact with them at all times when you are teaching. So know your presentation well so you don’t have to turn and look at the screen during the course of the lesson.\n\nPowerPoint gives you the ability to use a timer fiction so the slides change on their own after a set period of time.  This is a slick function but one that few actually use. And in your setting of trying to integrate PowerPoint into your teaching, you should avoid the timer function as well.\n\nThe only way this function can work is if you are in a teaching situation where there is no chance there will be an interruption or a delay.\n\nAnd since in a classroom setting you can almost guarantee interruptions in your presentation, the timer function then would become your worst enemy rather than a good tool to help you.\n\nMaintain a consistency to the design of your PowerPoint slides. This means using one single color or background scheme for the entire show. Consistency also applies to the motion of bulleted lists.\n\nYou can also convert boring bullet list to  SmartArt diagrams. E.g below an Organization chart.\n\nThere are dozens of presentation styles for bulleted lists that PowerPoint supports. You can have your bullet points fly in from the side, bounce in or fade in from nothing to something and then fade away again.\n\nAvoid the temptation to use a different effect on each slide. By establishing one text management strategy, you will avoid creating a PowerPoint lesson that is distracting and disjointed.\n\nAnd by using common sense and good advice in how to put together your PowerPoint lesson plan, you will create a resource for that lesson that can be a valuable part of your teaching arsenal for years to come.', 'Teaching With PowerPoint', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'teaching-with-powerpoint', '', '', '2023-03-27 20:57:14', '2023-03-27 20:57:14', '', 13312, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/formal-science/computer-science-forum/topic/teaching-with-powerpoint/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13574, 19, '2023-03-27 21:08:15', '2023-03-27 21:08:15', 'If you are working your way through teacher\'s college, you are getting a lot of great education that will give you the knowledge and the skills to teach young minds in the not too distant future.\n\nBut you may not entirely know what kind of minor to declare or what kind of elective classes to take that will harmonize well with your concentration on becoming an educator.\n\nOne suggestion that would help you tremendously would be for you to add a concentration in psychology. Psychology is a field of study that can give you invaluable resources and abilities to manage a classroom full of students that otherwise might not be available to you.\n\nThe reason psychology would help you so much is that when it gets right down to it, teaching and learning are very human events. And you don’t just teach the mind.\n\nYou teach the heart and the soul of the student as well. So by learning how the minds of your students \"tick\", you give yourself yet another advantage in you quest to maintain control of that classroom at all times.\n\nWhen you are teaching a group of students, even if not a word is being said, they are talking to you all the time. And part of psychology is learning what they are saying to you with their body language.\n\nIn general, students will send a signal of blocking you or being open to you based o how their arms are positioned, how relaxed they seem, whether their legs are crossed or open and particularly through their facial expression.\n\nIf you can learn to understand the language of body language, you can use it to take a boring lesson or lecture and suddenly transform it into a lesson that captures the student\'s imagination and holds them for as long as you need to for the sake of the lesson.\n\nPsychology will also help you understand how to use your body language to send messages to your students. The thing about body language is that it delivers the message whether the other person is aware of it or not.\n\nYou no doubt know that standing in front of a group of kids and teaching is about a lot more than what you say or even how you say it with your voice.  You are communicating all the time with your body language, your posture and your movements.\n\nAnd if you know a little bit about human psychology and how your students will react to movement or sudden changes in your physical demeanor, you can use the power you have over them to capture their minds and hold them on the subject at hand. In that way psychology can be a powerful aid to your teaching.\n\nNow you are not looking to become Sigmund Freud in your study of psychology. But if you know enough about the human mind and how what is going on inside a student can be expressed externally, you can be a big help to a student who may be in emotional trouble but unable to communicate it.\n\nIf you can spot the signs of emotional distress and get that child to counseling and the help he or she needs, you could literally be a lifesaver for one of your students.\n\nAnd that is a wonderful feeling and all the reason you need to make psychology part of your college curriculum plan.', 'A Little Psychology Goes a Long Way', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'a-little-psychology-goes-a-long-way', '', '', '2023-03-27 21:08:15', '2023-03-27 21:08:15', '', 13429, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/education-specific-forums/educational-psychology-forum/topic/a-little-psychology-goes-a-long-way/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13575, 19, '2023-03-27 21:36:55', '2023-03-27 21:36:55', 'There is something so satisfying about working with a true professional in any line of work. When you have a professional on the job in any area of specialization watching that person in action is like watching a work of art.\n\nThey exude the knowledge, the skill, the devotion to doing a top notch job and the confidence that they are the professional who can do the job that is missing in a lesser talent.\n\nThat is the level we all want to reach in the field of teaching if that is your calling.  Not only do you want to be a true professional in your area of specialization which is teaching, you want your students to notice your professionalism and recognize that it makes a big difference having a professional running the class rather an a lesser talent.\n\nWhen a professional is on the case, everybody relaxes because they know the job will be done right.  In the movie, Pulp Fiction, when the gangsters needed help because of a killing, they called in Mr. Wolf.\n\nAnd Mr. Wolf was well known for being the man that always knows what to do, who moves fast but is as courteous as he is efficient and who knows how to get the job done right.  When Mr. Wolf was on the scene, the problem was as good as solved.  And even though that movie was a bit grisly and profane, Mr. Wolf is a great example of true professionalism at work.\n\nSo how do you show your professionalism as you go about your craft of teaching? For one thing, you dress the part.  Take pride in your wardrobe and present to yourself to your class each day in a garment that says, I came ready to teach so you should come ready to learn\n\nThat is what happens when a professional is on the premises.   Everybody wants to get on board with the program.\n\nA professional always knows what to do both long range and right now.  That means you come prepared.  Your lesson plans are in order, your room is prepared and you paperwork is organized so at no time do you have to pause and get yourself together when you are into the process of teaching your students.\n\nThis will take some time for you to get to that level of organization when you walk in the door of your classroom the next day.  But putting in that hour or two each night so you are that organized not only makes you a better teacher, it lets the students know that this is a professional operation so be ready.\n\nStudents, particularly youth and children can tell the difference between someone who knows what they are doing and someone who is floundering.  As the saying goes, they can smell fear.\n\nIt gives young people confidence and a sense of security that you are organized and not only know what you are going to do each moment of the teaching day, you know what they are going to do as well.  That is professionalism and it will make a world of difference in how your teaching goes.\n\nA professional teacher also responds to interruptions and even disturbances calmly because you have seen it before and you know what to do.  Of course developing a history in teaching to where you really do know what to do in each circumstance takes time.  But if you are completely prepared in every other respect, interruptions won\'t throw you because you can address them and be right back to you lesson smoothly and calmly.\n\nA byproduct of being consummately prepared and so well versed in what your lesson plans say and what you are teaching is that it gives you a calm confidence that frees you up to be relaxed and even humorous with your students.\n\nWhen your students see you smile because everything is going exactly the way you want it to go, they will respond and open up to you because they sense your confidence and they want to see where you are going to take them.\n\nAnd because you are relaxed and at ease, your students are at ease as well and they can ask you questions and interact with you as you teach.  And that kind of interactive dialog is what makes the difference in the lives of students and makes you a true professional teacher.', 'Becoming a Truly Professional Teacher', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'becoming-a-truly-professional-teacher', '', '', '2023-03-27 21:36:55', '2023-03-27 21:36:55', '', 13418, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/education-specific-forums/critical-pedagogy-forum/topic/becoming-a-truly-professional-teacher/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13578, 1, '2023-03-29 10:13:02', '2023-03-29 10:13:02', '', 'News Forum', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'news-forum', '', '', '2023-03-29 10:13:02', '2023-03-29 10:13:02', '', 3592, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?post_type=forum&#038;p=13578', 0, 'forum', '', 0),
(13579, 1, '2023-03-29 10:13:02', '2023-03-29 10:13:02', '', 'News Forum', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13578-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-03-29 10:13:02', '2023-03-29 10:13:02', '', 13578, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13579', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13580, 1, '2023-03-29 10:16:49', '2023-03-29 10:16:49', 'One thing about life is that we all don’t look like our problems, that is why they say don’t judge people according to how they look because you will be deceived. When you see people walking in the streets you might think they have it all figured out not knowing that they are going through a lot behind closed door. More especially on tick tick, when you see people looking all happy some are just there trying to find comfort from their real life and most of them are struggling from financial stress.\n\nSpeaking of finances, there was a young teacher who left people so heartbroken after he committed suicide because of financial stress. On the notes that he wrote, he said he was struggling with debts. Surprisingly, he killed himself on pay day as we all know that public school teachers get paid on the 22nd of every month. This teacher was famous for his funny video that used to make people laugh their lungs out on tick tok. Little did they know that the person who was making them laugh was dying from the inside.\n\n&nbsp;\n\nBefore he committed suicide, he posted on WhatsApp that no one will ever understand, and even if they do, no one will help. We might disagree on this, but it is the sad reality of life: people can never understand someone’s problem until they walk through the same path. Even if they understand, they can never help you they will just make you a laughing stock and even tell others about your problems.\n\n&nbsp;', 'A Teacher Commited Suicide Because Of Debts', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'closed', '', 'a-teacher-commited-suicide-because-of-debts', '', '', '2023-03-29 10:16:49', '2023-03-29 10:16:49', '', 13578, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/general/news-forum/topic/a-teacher-commited-suicide-because-of-debts/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
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(13583, 19, '2023-04-03 09:33:33', '2023-04-03 09:33:33', 'LAGOS STATE UNIVERSAL . BASIC EDUCATION BOARD\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<a href=\"/forums/topic-tag/learning-outcome/\" title=\"learning outcome\">Learning Outcome</a> Benchmarks For Primary Education\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nWhat every child should be able to do by the end of each primary class\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCLASS Primary 1\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nLITERACY\r\n\r\nReading:\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nUse sounds and letters to read three-letter words, e.g. mat, car, bag, man, boy, cat, dog.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nWriting:\r\n\r\nWrite up to 10 common three-letter words, e.g. mat, car, bag, big, dog, eye, pen.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nListening and Speaking:\r\n\r\nAnswer simple questions using one word answers.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nGrammatical Accuracy:\r\n\r\nUse articles “a” and “an” with common words.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNUMERACY —\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNumber and Numeration:\r\n\r\n- Identify and count numbers 0-50 and recognise denominations of the Nigerian currency.\r\n\r\nCalculation: Add and subtract single digit numbers.\r\n\r\nGeometry: Recognise plane shapes.\r\n\r\nMeasurement: Compare and order the length, weight and capacity of different objects (e.g. longer, bigger, smaller than,,.,)\r\n\r\nStatistics: Associate numbers 0-20 with groups of objects\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCLASS | Primary 2\r\n\r\nLITERACY Reading: - Read simple sentences and answer factual questions on them.\r\n\r\nWriting: Write simple sentences using verbs and nouns\r\n\r\nListening and Speaking: Answer factual questions from simple passages/stories/rhymes read to them.\r\n\r\nUse sounds and combination of letters to spell and pronounce . words.\r\n\r\nGrammatical Accuracy:  Use regular plurals of nouns and the simple past and present  tense of common verbs.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNUMERACY\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNumber and Numeration: :\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nIdentify, count, order and write numbers 1-200. ~\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCalculation:\r\n\r\nAdd and subtract two-digit numbers without carrying or borrowing. Multiply single digit numbers up to 6x6.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nGeometry:\r\n\r\nRecognise 2 and 3 dimensional shapes.\r\n\r\nMeasurement: Recognise the hour and minute hands and tell time using “o\'clock” and “half-past”. time. ;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nStatistics:\r\n\r\nOrganise objects into groups of numbers 0-20 ‘\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCLASS Primary 3\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nLITERACY Reading: . Read simple, short passages and answer questions on them.\r\n\r\nWriting: Write three to four sentences on every day activities with full stops and capital letters correctly used.\r\n\r\nListening and Speaking: Make simple statements and respond to simple commands.\r\n\r\nGrammatical Accuracy:\r\n\r\nUse irregular plurals of nouns in speaking and writing.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNUMERACY\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNumber and Numeration:\r\n\r\nIdentify and write the value of each number in a 3-digit number (H T U).\r\n\r\nCalculation: identify %, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5 and 1/6 of divided objects.\r\n\r\nFind the factors of numbers up to 48.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nGeometry: Draw and state properties of plane shapes.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nMeasurement: Measure length, weight and capacity (volume) using Standard units (metres, grams, litres,).\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nStatistics: Recognise information presented in simple charts. .\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCLASS Primary 4\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nLITERACY\r\n\r\nReading: Read a simple story and say three things about one of the characters.\r\n\r\nWriting: Write three or four sentences about an experience they have had in the correct sequence.\r\n\r\nListening and Speaking: : Take part in a simple conversation using appropriate words.\r\n\r\nGrammatical Accuracy: Use the past, continuous, present and future tenses accurately. in speaking and writing.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNUMERACY\r\n\r\nNumber and Numeration:\r\n\r\nIdentify and write the value of each number in a 4-digit number (TH, H, T, U). Calculation: Choose the correct calculation to solve simple problems. Recognise links between decimals and fractions.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nGeometry: Locate lines of symmetry in 2 dimensional shapes.\r\n\r\nMeasurement: : Record estimates and measurements in a table.\r\n\r\nStatistics: Represent information in a bar graph.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCLASS Primary 5\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nLITERACY\r\n\r\nReading: Read a non-fiction passage and say three things they learned from it.\r\n\r\nWriting: Write a short account of events or a simple story with at least one description and a clear beginning, middle and ending.\r\n\r\nListening and Speaking: Participate in structured dialogues that involve expression of ideas (giving opinions and asking questions).\r\n\r\nGrammatical Accuracy and Spelling: Use simple adjectives and adverbs in speaking and writing. Arrange a list of words in alphabetical order, up to the third letter.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNUMERACY\r\n\r\nNumber and Numeration: Identify prime numbers (2, 3, 5, and 7) and other common number patterns from 0-100,\r\n\r\nCalculation: . Use knowledge of the multiplication table to solve problems involving fractions, e.g., what is a third of 187 Solve simple problems involving time and money.\r\n\r\nGeometry: , Calculate a missing angle in a given shape. Measurement: Apply simple formulae, e.g. LxB; 2(L+B) to calculate area and perimeter of 2 dimensional shapes.\r\n\r\nStatistics: Answer questions using data presented in graphs and tables.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCLASS Primary 6\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nLITERACY\r\n\r\nReading:\r\n\r\nRead a story and explain characters’ behaviours and predict their future actions.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nWriting:\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nWrite simple compositions that fit different purposes e.g. letters, accounts, descriptions, stories,poems.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nListening and Speaking:\r\n\r\nUse the correct intonation to distinguish between commands, questions and statements\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nGrammatical Accuracy and Spelling:\r\n\r\nFind words in a simple dictionary a or long list using their knowledge of alphabetical order.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNUMERACY\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNumber and Numeration: Find the lowest common multiple of numbers.\r\n\r\nOrder fractions using the signs greater than, less than. and equal to (&gt;,&lt;,=).\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCalculation: Solve problems by identifying and completing calculations required.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nGeometry:\r\n\r\nIdentify and measure different angles in 4 dimensionai shapes.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nMeasurement:\r\n\r\nChoose and use standard metric units with decimal notation, e.g. 6.9. 1.3 metres. |\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nStatistics: Find the range, median, mean, and mode of sets of items.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;', 'Learning Outcome Benchmarks For Primary Education in Lagos State', '', 'publish', 'closed', 'open', '', 'learning-outcome-benchmarks-for-primary-education-in-lagos-state', '', '', '2023-04-23 14:33:21', '2023-04-23 14:33:21', '', 13421, 'https://teachers.com.ng/forums/forum/professional-subject-forums/education-specific-forums/curriculum-and-instruction-forum/topic/learning-outcome-benchmarks-for-primary-education-in-lagos-state/', 0, 'topic', '', 0),
(13594, 1, '2023-04-23 14:33:20', '2023-04-23 14:33:20', 'LAGOS STATE UNIVERSAL . BASIC EDUCATION BOARD\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<a href=\"/forums/topic-tag/learning-outcome/\" title=\"learning outcome\">Learning Outcome</a> Benchmarks For Primary Education\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nWhat every child should be able to do by the end of each primary class\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCLASS Primary 1\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nLITERACY\r\n\r\nReading:\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nUse sounds and letters to read three-letter words, e.g. mat, car, bag, man, boy, cat, dog.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nWriting:\r\n\r\nWrite up to 10 common three-letter words, e.g. mat, car, bag, big, dog, eye, pen.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nListening and Speaking:\r\n\r\nAnswer simple questions using one word answers.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nGrammatical Accuracy:\r\n\r\nUse articles “a” and “an” with common words.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNUMERACY —\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNumber and Numeration:\r\n\r\n- Identify and count numbers 0-50 and recognise denominations of the Nigerian currency.\r\n\r\nCalculation: Add and subtract single digit numbers.\r\n\r\nGeometry: Recognise plane shapes.\r\n\r\nMeasurement: Compare and order the length, weight and capacity of different objects (e.g. longer, bigger, smaller than,,.,)\r\n\r\nStatistics: Associate numbers 0-20 with groups of objects\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCLASS | Primary 2\r\n\r\nLITERACY Reading: - Read simple sentences and answer factual questions on them.\r\n\r\nWriting: Write simple sentences using verbs and nouns\r\n\r\nListening and Speaking: Answer factual questions from simple passages/stories/rhymes read to them.\r\n\r\nUse sounds and combination of letters to spell and pronounce . words.\r\n\r\nGrammatical Accuracy:  Use regular plurals of nouns and the simple past and present  tense of common verbs.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNUMERACY\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNumber and Numeration: :\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nIdentify, count, order and write numbers 1-200. ~\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCalculation:\r\n\r\nAdd and subtract two-digit numbers without carrying or borrowing. Multiply single digit numbers up to 6x6.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nGeometry:\r\n\r\nRecognise 2 and 3 dimensional shapes.\r\n\r\nMeasurement: Recognise the hour and minute hands and tell time using “o\'clock” and “half-past”. time. ;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nStatistics:\r\n\r\nOrganise objects into groups of numbers 0-20 ‘\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCLASS Primary 3\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nLITERACY Reading: . Read simple, short passages and answer questions on them.\r\n\r\nWriting: Write three to four sentences on every day activities with full stops and capital letters correctly used.\r\n\r\nListening and Speaking: Make simple statements and respond to simple commands.\r\n\r\nGrammatical Accuracy:\r\n\r\nUse irregular plurals of nouns in speaking and writing.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNUMERACY\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNumber and Numeration:\r\n\r\nIdentify and write the value of each number in a 3-digit number (H T U).\r\n\r\nCalculation: identify %, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5 and 1/6 of divided objects.\r\n\r\nFind the factors of numbers up to 48.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nGeometry: Draw and state properties of plane shapes.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nMeasurement: Measure length, weight and capacity (volume) using Standard units (metres, grams, litres,).\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nStatistics: Recognise information presented in simple charts. .\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCLASS Primary 4\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nLITERACY\r\n\r\nReading: Read a simple story and say three things about one of the characters.\r\n\r\nWriting: Write three or four sentences about an experience they have had in the correct sequence.\r\n\r\nListening and Speaking: : Take part in a simple conversation using appropriate words.\r\n\r\nGrammatical Accuracy: Use the past, continuous, present and future tenses accurately. in speaking and writing.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNUMERACY\r\n\r\nNumber and Numeration:\r\n\r\nIdentify and write the value of each number in a 4-digit number (TH, H, T, U). Calculation: Choose the correct calculation to solve simple problems. Recognise links between decimals and fractions.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nGeometry: Locate lines of symmetry in 2 dimensional shapes.\r\n\r\nMeasurement: : Record estimates and measurements in a table.\r\n\r\nStatistics: Represent information in a bar graph.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCLASS Primary 5\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nLITERACY\r\n\r\nReading: Read a non-fiction passage and say three things they learned from it.\r\n\r\nWriting: Write a short account of events or a simple story with at least one description and a clear beginning, middle and ending.\r\n\r\nListening and Speaking: Participate in structured dialogues that involve expression of ideas (giving opinions and asking questions).\r\n\r\nGrammatical Accuracy and Spelling: Use simple adjectives and adverbs in speaking and writing. Arrange a list of words in alphabetical order, up to the third letter.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNUMERACY\r\n\r\nNumber and Numeration: Identify prime numbers (2, 3, 5, and 7) and other common number patterns from 0-100,\r\n\r\nCalculation: . Use knowledge of the multiplication table to solve problems involving fractions, e.g., what is a third of 187 Solve simple problems involving time and money.\r\n\r\nGeometry: , Calculate a missing angle in a given shape. Measurement: Apply simple formulae, e.g. LxB; 2(L+B) to calculate area and perimeter of 2 dimensional shapes.\r\n\r\nStatistics: Answer questions using data presented in graphs and tables.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCLASS Primary 6\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nLITERACY\r\n\r\nReading:\r\n\r\nRead a story and explain characters’ behaviours and predict their future actions.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nWriting:\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nWrite simple compositions that fit different purposes e.g. letters, accounts, descriptions, stories,poems.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nListening and Speaking:\r\n\r\nUse the correct intonation to distinguish between commands, questions and statements\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nGrammatical Accuracy and Spelling:\r\n\r\nFind words in a simple dictionary a or long list using their knowledge of alphabetical order.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNUMERACY\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nNumber and Numeration: Find the lowest common multiple of numbers.\r\n\r\nOrder fractions using the signs greater than, less than. and equal to (&gt;,&lt;,=).\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nCalculation: Solve problems by identifying and completing calculations required.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nGeometry:\r\n\r\nIdentify and measure different angles in 4 dimensionai shapes.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nMeasurement:\r\n\r\nChoose and use standard metric units with decimal notation, e.g. 6.9. 1.3 metres. |\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nStatistics: Find the range, median, mean, and mode of sets of items.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;', 'Learning Outcome Benchmarks For Primary Education in Lagos State', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13583-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-04-23 14:33:20', '2023-04-23 14:33:20', '', 13583, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13594', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13595, 1, '2023-04-23 14:35:54', '2023-04-23 14:35:54', '(1) The distortion of the first point usually comes about through misuse of the idea of heredity. It is assumed that heredity means that past life has somehow predetermined the main traits of an individual and that they are so fixed that little serious change can be introduced into them. Thus taken, the influence of heredity is opposed to that of the environment, and the efficacy of the latter is belittled. But for educational purposes, heredity means neither more nor less than the original endowment of an individual. \n\nEducation must take the being as he is; that a particular individual has just such and such equipment of native activities is a basic fact. That they were produced in such and such a way, or that they are derived from one\'s ancestry, is not especially important for the educator, however, it may be with the biologist, as compared with the fact that they now exist. Suppose one had to advise or direct a person regarding his inheritance of property. The fallacy of assuming that the fact it is an inheritance, predetermines its future use, is obvious. \n\nThe advisor is concerned with making the best use of what is there—putting it at work under the most favourable conditions. Obviously, he cannot utilize what is not there; neither can the educator. In this sense, heredity is a limit of education. Recognition of this fact prevents the waste of energy and the irritation that ensues from the too prevalent habit of trying to make by instruction something out of an individual which he is not naturally fitted to become. But the doctrine does not determine what use shall be made of the capacities which exist.\n\n And, except in the case of the imbecile, these original capacities are much more varied and potential, even in the case of the more stupid, than we as yet know properly how to utilize. Consequently, while a careful study of the native aptitudes and deficiencies of an individual is always a preliminary necessity, the subsequent and important step is to furnish an environment which will adequately function whatever activities are present. \n\nThe relationship of heredity and environment is well expressed in the case of language. If a being had no vocal organs from which issue articulate sounds if he had no auditory or other sense-receptors and no connections between the two sets of apparatus, it would be a sheer waste of time to try to teach him to converse. He is born short in that respect, and education must accept the limitation. But if he has this native equipment, its possession in no way guarantees that he will ever talk any language or what language he will talk. \n\nThe environment in which his activities occur and by which they are carried into execution settles these things. If he lived in a dumb unsocial environment where men refused to talk to one another and used only that minimum of gestures without which they could not get along, vocal language would be as unachieved by him as if he had no vocal organs. If the sounds he makes occur in a medium of persons speaking the Chinese language, the activities which make like sounds will be selected and coordinated. \n\nThis illustration may be applied to the entire range of the educability of any individual. It places the heritage from the past in its right connection with the demands and opportunities of the present.\n\n(2) The theory that the proper subject matter of instruction is found in the culture-products of past ages (either in general or more specifically in the particular pieces of literature which were produced in the cultural epoch which is supposed to correspond with the stage of development of those taught) affords another instance of that divorce between the process and product of growth which has been criticized. \n\nTo keep the process alive, to keep it alive in ways which make it easier to keep it alive in the future, is the function of educational subject matter. But an individual can live only in the present. The present is not just something which comes after the past; much less something produced by it. It is what life is in leaving the past behind it. The study of past products will not help us understand the present, because the present is not due to the products, but to the life of which they were the products. \n\nKnowledge of the past and its heritage is of great significance when it enters into the present, but not otherwise. And the mistake of making the records and remains of the past the main material of education is that it cuts the vital connection of the present and past, and tends to make the past a rival of the present and the present a more or less futile imitation of the past. Under such circumstances, culture becomes an ornament and solace; a refuge and an asylum. Men escape from the crudities of the present to live in its imagined refinements, instead of using what the past offers as an agency for ripening these crudities. \n\nThe present, in short, generates the problems which lead us to search the past for suggestions, and which supply meaning to what we find when we search. The past is the past precisely because it does not include what is characteristic in the present. The moving present includes the past on condition that it uses the past to direct its own movement. The past is a great resource for the imagination; it adds a new dimension to life, but OD conditions that it be seen as the past of the present, and not as another and disconnected world. \n\nThe principle which makes little of the present act of living and operation of growing, the only thing always present, naturally looks to the past because the future goal which it sets up is remote and empty. But having turned its back upon the present, it has no way of returning to it laden with the spoils of the past. A mind that is adequately sensitive to the needs and occasions of the present actuality will have the liveliest of motives for interest in the background of the present, and will never have to hunt for a way back because it will never have lost connection.\n\n3. Education as Reconstruction. In contrast with the ideas both of unfolding of latent powers from within, and of the formation from without, whether by physical nature or by the cultural products of the past, the idea of growth results in the conception that education is a constant reorganizing or reconstructing of experience. It has all the time an immediate end, and so far as activity is educative, it reaches that end—the direct transformation of the quality of experience. \n\nInfancy, youth, and adult life,—all stand on the same <a href=\"/forums/forum/topic/learning-outcome-benchmarks-for-primary-education-in-lagos-state/\" title=\"Learning Outcome Benchmarks For Primary Education in Lagos State\">educative level in the sense that what is really learned</a> at any and every stage of experience constitutes the value of that experience, and in the sense that it is the chief business of life at every point to make living thus contribute to an enrichment of its own perceptible meaning.\n\nWe thus reach a technical definition of education: It is the reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience, and which increases the ability to direct the course of subsequent experience. \n\n(1) The increment of meaning corresponds to the increased perception of the connections and continuities of the activities in which we are engaged. The activity begins in an impulsive form; that is, it is blind. It does not know what it is about; that is to say, what are its interactions with other activities. An activity which brings education or instruction with it makes one aware of some of the connections which had been imperceptible. \n\nTo recur to our simple example, a child who reaches for a bright light gets burned. Henceforth he knows that a certain act of touching in connection with a certain act of vision (and vice-versa) means heat and pain; or, a certain light means a source of heat. The acts by which a scientific man in his laboratory learns more about flame differ no whit in principle. By doing certain things, he makes perceptible certain connections of heat with other things, which had been previously ignored.\n\n Thus his acts in relation to these things get more meaning; he knows better what he is doing or \"is about\" when he has to do with them; he can intend consequences instead of just letting them happen—all synonymous ways of saying the same thing. At the same stroke, the flame has gained in meaning; all that is known about combustion, oxidation, light and temperature, may become an intrinsic part of its intellectual content.', '', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13442-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-04-23 14:35:54', '2023-04-23 14:35:54', '', 13442, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13595', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
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(13596, 1, '2023-04-23 14:35:55', '2023-04-23 14:35:55', 'A theory which has had great vogue and which came into existence before the notion of growth had much influence is known as the theory of \"formal discipline.\" It has in view a correct ideal; one outcome of education should be the creation of specific powers of accomplishment. A trained person is one who can do the chief things which it is important for him to do better than he could without training: \"better\" signifying greater ease, efficiency, economy, promptness, etc. That this is an <a href=\"/forums/forum/topic/learning-outcome-benchmarks-for-primary-education-in-lagos-state/\" title=\"Learning Outcome Benchmarks For Primary Education in Lagos State\">outcome of education</a> was indicated in what was said about habits as the product of educative development. \n\nBut the theory in question takes, as it were, a shortcut; it regards some powers (to be presently named) as the direct and conscious aims of instruction, and not simply as the results of growth. There is a definite number of powers to be trained, as one might enumerate the kinds of strokes which a golfer has to master. Consequently, education should get directly at the business of training them. But this implies that they are already there in some untrained form; otherwise, their creation would have to be an indirect product of other activities and agencies. Being there already in some crude form, all that remains is to exercise them in constant and graded repetitions, and they will inevitably be refined and perfected. In the phrase \"formal discipline\" as applied to this conception, \"discipline\" refers both to the outcome of trained power and to the method of training through repeated exercise.\n\nThe forms of powers in question are such things as the faculties of perceiving, retaining, recalling, associating, attending, willing, feeling, imagining, thinking, etc., which are then shaped by exercise upon the material presented. In its classic form, this theory was expressed by Locke. On the one hand, the outer world presents the material or content of knowledge through passively received sensations. On the other hand, the mind has certain ready powers, attention, observation, retention, comparison, abstraction, compounding, etc. \n\nKnowledge results if the mind discriminates and combines things as they are united and divided in nature itself. But the important thing for education is the exercise or practice of the faculties of the mind till they become thoroughly established habits. The analogy constantly employed is that of a billiard player or gymnast, who by repeated use of certain muscles in a uniform way, at last, secures automatic skill. Even the faculty of thinking was to be formed into a trained habit by repeated exercises in making and combining simple distinctions, for which, Locke thought, mathematics affords unrivalled opportunity.\n\nLocke\'s statements fitted well into the dualism of his day. It seemed to do justice to both mind and matter, the individual and the world. One of the two supplied the matter of knowledge and the object upon which the mind should work. The other supplied definite mental powers, which were few in number and which might be trained by specific exercises. The scheme appeared to give due weight to the subject matter of knowledge, and yet it insisted that the end of education is not the bare reception and storage of information, but the formation of personal powers of attention, memory, observation, abstraction, and generalization. \n\nIt was realistic in its emphatic assertion that all material whatever is received from without; it was idealistic in that final stress fell upon the formation of intellectual powers. It was objective and impersonal in its assertion that the individual cannot possess or generate any true ideas on his own account; it was individualistic in placing the end of education in the perfecting of certain faculties possessed at the outset by the individual. This kind of distribution of values expressed with nicety the state of opinion in the generations following upon Locke. It became, without explicit reference to Locke, a common place of educational theory and of psychology. \n\nPractically, it seemed to provide the educator with definite, instead of vague, tasks. It made the elaboration of a technique of instruction relatively easy. All that was necessary was to provide for sufficient practice of each of the powers. This practice consists of repeated acts of attending, observing, memorizing, etc. By grading the difficulty of the acts, making each set of repetitions somewhat more difficult than the set which preceded it, a complete scheme of instruction is evolved. There are various ways, equally conclusive, of criticizing this conception, in both its alleged foundations and in its educational application. \n\n(1) Perhaps the most direct mode of attack consists in pointing out that the supposed original faculties of observation, recollection, willingness, thinking, etc., are purely mythological. There are no such ready-made powers waiting to be exercised and thereby trained. There are, indeed, a great number of original native tendencies, and instinctive modes of action, based on the original connections of neurones in the central nervous system. There are impulsive tendencies of the eyes to follow and fixate light; of the neck muscles to turn toward light and sound; of the hands to reach and grasp; and turn and twist and thump; of the vocal apparatus to make sounds; of the mouth to spew out unpleasant substances; to gag and to curl the lip, and so on in almost indefinite number. \n\nBut these tendencies (a) instead of being a small number sharply marked off from one another, are of an indefinite variety, interweaving with one another in all kinds of subtle ways. (b) Instead of being latent intellectual powers, requiring only exercise for their perfecting, they are tendencies to respond in certain ways to changes in the environment so as to bring about other changes. Something in the throat makes one cough; the tendency is to eject the obnoxious particle and thus modify the subsequent stimulus. The hand touches a hot thing; it is impulsively, wholly unintellectually, snatched away. But the withdrawal alters the stimuli operating, and tends to make them more consonant with the needs of the organism. \n\nIt is by such specific changes of organic activities in response to specific changes in the medium that the control of the environment of which we have spoken (see ante, p. 24) is affected. Now all of our first seeings and hearings and touchings and smellings and tastings are of this kind. In any legitimate sense of the words mental or intellectual or cognitive, they are lacking in these qualities, and no amount of repetitious exercise could bestow any intellectual properties of observation, judgment, or intentional action (volition) upon them.\n\n(2) Consequently the training of our original impulsive activities is not a refinement and perfecting achieved by \"exercise\" as one might strengthen a muscle by practice. It consists rather (a) in selecting from the diffused responses which are evoked at a given time those which are specially adapted to the utilization of the stimulus. That is to say, among the reactions of the body in general that occur upon stimulation of the eye by light, all except those which are specifically adapted to reaching, grasping, and manipulating the object effectively are gradually eliminated—or else no training occurs. As we have already noted, the primary reactions, with very few exceptions are too diffused and general to be practical of much use in the case of the human infant. Hence the identity of training with the selective response. (Compare p. 25.)\n\n (b) Equally important is the specific coordination of different factors of response which take place. There is not merely a selection of the hand reactions which affect grasping, but of the particular visual stimuli which call out just these reactions and no others, and an establishment of a connection between the two. But the coordinating does not stop here. Characteristic temperature reactions may take place when the object is grasped. \n\nThese will also be brought in; later, the temperature reaction may be connected directly with the optical stimulus, the hand reaction being suppressed—as a bright flame, independent of close contact, may steer one away. Or the child in handling the object pounds with it, or crumples it, and a sound issues. The ear response is then brought into the system of response. If a certain sound (the conventional name) is made by others and accompanies the activity, the response of both ear and the vocal apparatus connected with auditory stimulation will also become an associated factor in the complex response.\n\n(3) The more specialized the adjustment of response and stimulus to each other (for, taking the sequence of activities into account, the stimuli are adapted to reactions as well as reactions to stimuli) the more rigid and the less generally available is the training secured. In equivalent language, less intellectual or educative quality attaches to the training. The usual way of stating this fact is that the more specialized the reaction, the less the skill acquired in practising and perfecting it transferable to other modes of behaviour. \n\nAccording to the orthodox theory of formal discipline, a pupil in studying his spelling lesson acquires, besides the ability to spell those particular words, an increase of power of observation, attention, and recollection which may be employed whenever these powers are needed. As matter of fact, the more he confines himself to noticing and fixating on the forms of words, irrespective of connection with other things (such as the meaning of the words, the context in which they are habitually used, the derivation and classification of the verbal form, etc.) the less likely is he to acquire an ability which can be used for anything except the mere noting of verbal visual forms. He may not even be increasing his ability to make accurate distinctions among geometrical forms, to say nothing of his ability to observe in general. He is merely selecting the stimuli supplied by the forms of the letters and the motor reactions of oral or written reproduction. The scope of coordination (to use our prior terminology) is extremely limited. \n\nThe connections which are employed in other observations and recollections (or reproductions) are deliberately eliminated when the pupil is exercised merely upon forms of letters and words. Having been excluded, they cannot be restored when needed. The ability secured to observe and to recall verbal forms is not available for perceiving and recalling other things. In ordinary phraseology, it is not transferable. But the wider the context—that is to say, the more varied the stimuli and responses coordinated—the more the ability acquired is available for the effective performance of other acts; not, strictly speaking, because there is any \"transfer,\" but because the wide range of factors employed in the specific act is equivalent to a broad range of activity, to a flexible, instead of to a narrow and rigid, coordination.\n\n (4) Going to the root of the matter, the fundamental fallacy of the theory is its dualism; that is to say, its separation of activities and capacities from the subject matter. There is no such thing as an ability to see or hear or remember in general; there is only the ability to see or hear or remember something. To talk about training a power, mental or physical, in general, apart from the subject matter involved in its exercise, is nonsense. Exercise may react upon circulation, breathing, and nutrition so as to develop vigour or strength, but this reservoir is available for specific ends only by use in connection with the material means that accomplish them. \n\nVigour will enable a man to play tennis or golf or to sail a boat better than he would if he were weak. But only by employing ball and racket, ball and club, sail and tiller, in definite ways does he become expert in any one of them; and expertness in one secures expertness in another only so far as it is either a sign of aptitude for fine muscular coordination or as the same kind of coordination is involved in all of them. Moreover, the difference between the training of the ability to spell which comes from taking visual forms in a narrow context and one which takes them in connection with the activities required to grasp the meaning, such as context, affiliations of descent, etc., may be compared to the difference between exercises in the gymnasium with pulley weights to \"develop\" certain muscles, and a game or sport. \n\nThe former is uniform and mechanical; it is rigidly specialized. The latter is varied from moment to moment; no two acts are quite alike; novel emergencies have to be met; the coordination forming has to be kept flexible and elastic. Consequently, the training is much more \"general\"; that is to say, it covers a wider territory and includes more factors. Exactly the same thing holds of special and general education of the mind.\n\nA monotonously uniform exercise may by practice give great skill in one special act; but the skill is limited to that act, be it bookkeeping or calculations in logarithms or experiments in hydrocarbons. One may be an authority in a particular field and yet of more than usual poor judgment in matters not closely allied unless the training in the special field has been of a kind to ramify into the subject matter of the other fields. \n\n(5) Consequently, such powers as observation, recollection, judgment, and esthetic taste, represent organized results of the occupation of native active tendencies with certain subject matters. A man does not observe closely and fully by pressing a button for the observing faculty to get to work (in other words by \"willing\" to observe); but if he has something to do which can be accomplished successfully only through intensive and extensive use of eye and hand, he naturally observes. Observation is an outcome, a consequence, of the interaction of sense organs and subject matter. It will vary, accordingly, with the subject matter employed.\n\nIt is consequently futile to set up even the ulterior development of faculties of observation, memory, etc., unless we have first determined what sort of subject matter we wish the pupil to become expert in observing and recalling and for what purpose. And it is only repeating in another form what has already been said, to declare that the criterion here must be social. We want the person to note and recall and judge those things which make him an effective competent member of the group in which he is associated with others. Otherwise, we might as well set the pupil to observing carefully cracks on the wall and set him to memorizing meaningless lists of words in an unknown tongue—which is about what we do in fact when we give way to the doctrine of formal discipline. If the observing habits of a botanist or chemist or engineer are better habits than those which are thus formed, it is because they deal with subject matter which is more significant in life. \n\nIn concluding this portion of the discussion, we note that the distinction between special and general education has nothing to do with the transferability of function or power. In the literal sense, any transfer is miraculous and impossible. But some activities are broad; they involve the coordination of many factors. Their development demands continuous alternation and readjustment. As conditions change, certain factors are subordinated, and others which had been of minor importance come to the front. \n\nThere is constant redistribution of the focus of the action, as is seen in the illustration of a game as over against pulling a fixed weight by a series of uniform motions. Thus there is a practice in the prompt making of new combinations with the focus of activity shifted to meet a change in the subject matter. Wherever an activity is broad in scope (that is, involves the coordinating of a large variety of sub-activities), and is constantly and unexpectedly obliged to change direction in its progressive development, general education is bound to result. This is what \"general\" means; broad and flexible. In practice, education meets these conditions, and hence is general, in the degree in which it takes account of social relationships. \n\nA person may become an expert in technical philosophy, philology, mathematics or engineering or financiering, and be inept and ill-advised in his action and judgment outside of his speciality. If however his concern with these technical subject matters has been connected with human activities having social breadth, the range of active responses called into play and flexibly integrated is much wider. Isolation of subject matter from a social context is the chief obstruction in current practice to securing a general training of the mind. Literature, art, and religion, when thus dissociated, are just as narrowing as the technical things which the professional upholders of general education strenuously oppose.', 'Education is a Training of Faculties.', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13372-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-04-23 14:35:55', '2023-04-23 14:35:55', '', 13372, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13596', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13597, 1, '2023-04-23 14:35:56', '2023-04-23 14:35:56', ' We have laid it down that the educative process is a continuous process of growth, having as its aim at every stage an added capacity for growth. This conception contrasts sharply with other ideas which have influenced practice. By making the contrast explicit, the meaning of the conception will be brought more clearly to light. The first contrast is with the idea that education is a process of preparation or getting ready. What is to be prepared for is, of course, the responsibilities and privileges of adult life. Children are not regarded as social members in full and regular standing. They are looked upon as candidates; they are placed on the waiting list. \n\nThe conception is only carried a little further when the life of adults is considered as not having meaning on its own account, but as a preparatory probation for \"another life.\" The idea is but another form of the notion of the negative and privative character of growth already criticized; hence we shall not repeat the criticisms, but pass on to the evil consequences which flow from putting education on this basis. In the first place, it involves a loss of impetus. Motive power is not utilized. Children proverbially live in the present; that is not only a fact not to be evaded, but it is excellence. The future just as the future lacks urgency and body. To get ready for something, one knows not what nor why, is to throw away the leverage that exists, and to seek motive power in a vague chance. Under such circumstances, there is, in the second place, a premium put on shilly-shallying and procrastination. \n\nThe future prepared for is a long way off; plenty of time will intervene before it becomes a present. Why be in a hurry about getting ready for it? The temptation to postpone is much increased because the present offers so many wonderful opportunities and proffers such invitations to adventure. Naturally, attention and energy go to them; <a href=\"/forums/forum/topic/learning-outcome-benchmarks-for-primary-education-in-lagos-state/\" title=\"Learning Outcome Benchmarks For Primary Education in Lagos State\">education accrues naturally as an outcome</a>, but a lesser education than if the full stress of effort had been put upon making conditions as educative as possible. A third undesirable result is the substitution of a conventional average standard of expectation and requirement for a standard which concerns the specific powers of the individual under instruction. For a severe and definite judgment based upon the strong and weak points of the individual is substituted a vague and wavering opinion concerning what youth may be expected, upon the average, to become in some more or less remote future; say, at the end of the year, when promotions are to take place, or by the time they are ready to go to college or to enter upon what, in contrast with the probationary stage, is regarded as the serious business of life. It is impossible to overestimate the loss which results from the deflection of attention from the strategic point to a comparatively unproductive point. It fails most just where it thinks it is succeeding—in getting prepared for the future.\n\nFinally, the principle of preparation makes necessary recourse on a large scale to the use of adventitious motives of pleasure and pain. The future has no stimulating and directing power when severed from the possibilities of the present, something must be hitched onto it to make it work. Promises of reward and threats of pain are employed. Healthy work, done for present reasons and as a factor in living, is largely unconscious. The stimulus resides in the situation with which one is actually confronted. \n\nBut when this situation is ignored, pupils have to be told that if they do not follow the prescribed course penalties will accrue; while if they do, they may expect, some time in the future, rewards for their present sacrifices. Everybody knows how largely systems of punishment have had to be resorted to by educational systems which neglect present possibilities in behalf of preparation for a future. Then, in disgust with the harshness and impotency of this method, the pendulum swings to the opposite extreme, and the dose of information required against some later day is sugar-coated, so that pupils may be fooled into taking something which they do not care for.\n\nIt is not of course a question of whether education should prepare for the future. If education is growth, it must progressively realize present possibilities, and thus make individuals better fitted to cope with later requirements. Growing is not something which is completed in odd moments; it is a continuous leading factor into the future. If the environment, in school and out, supplies conditions which utilize adequately the present capacities of the immature, the future which grows out of the present is surely taken care of. The mistake is not in attaching importance to preparation for future needs, but in making it the mainspring of present effort. Because the need for preparation for a continually developing life is great, it is imperative that every energy should be bent on making the present experience as rich and significant as possible. Then as the present merges insensibly into the future, the future is taken care of.', 'Education is a Preparation for the Life of the Children', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13370-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-04-23 14:35:56', '2023-04-23 14:35:56', '', 13370, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13597', 0, 'revision', '', 0),
(13598, 1, '2023-04-23 14:35:56', '2023-04-23 14:35:56', '2. These methods of control are so obvious (because so intentionally employed) that it would hardly be worthwhile to mention them if it were not that notice may now be taken, by way of contrast, of the other more important and permanent mode of control. This other method resides in the ways in which persons, with whom the immature being is associated, use things; the instrumentalities with which they accomplish their own ends. The very existence of the social medium in which an individual lives, moves, and has his being is the standing effective agency of directing his activity.\n\nThis fact makes it necessary for us to examine in greater detail what is meant by the social environment. We are given to separate from each other in the physical and social environments in which we live. The separation is responsible on one hand for an exaggeration of the moral importance of the more direct or personal modes of control of which we have been speaking; and on the other hand for an exaggeration, in current psychology and philosophy, of the intellectual possibilities of contact with a purely physical environment. There is not, in fact, any such thing as the direct influence of one human being on another apart from the use of the physical environment as an intermediary. A smile, a frown, a rebuke, a word of warning or encouragement, all involve some physical change. Otherwise, the attitude of one would not get over to alter the attitude of another. Comparatively speaking, such modes of influence may be regarded as personal. The physical medium is reduced to a mere means of personal contact. In contrast with such direct modes of mutual influence, stand associations in common pursuits involving the use of things as means and as measures of results. Even if the mother never told her daughter to help her, or never rebuked her for not helping, the child would be subjected to the direction in her activities by the mere fact that she was engaged, along with the parent, in the household life. Imitation, emulation, and the need of working together enforce control.\n\nIf the mother hands the child something needed, the latter must reach the thing in order to get it. Where there is giving there must be taking. The way the child handles the thing after it is got, the use to which it is put, is surely influenced by the fact that the child has watched the mother. When the child sees the parent looking for something, it is as natural for it also to look for the object and to give it over when it finds it, as it was, under other circumstances, to receive it. Multiply such an instance by the thousand details of daily intercourse, and one has a picture of the most permanent and enduring method of giving direction to the activities of the young.\n\nIn saying this, we are only repeating what was said previously about participating in a joint activity as the chief way of forming disposition. We have explicitly added, however, the recognition of the part played in the joint activity by the use of things. The philosophy of learning has been unduly dominated by false psychology. It is frequently <a href=\"/forums/forum/topic/learning-outcome-benchmarks-for-primary-education-in-lagos-state/\" title=\"Learning Outcome Benchmarks For Primary Education in Lagos State\">stated that a person learns</a> by merely having the qualities of things impressed upon his mind through the gateway of the senses. Having received a store of sensory impressions, association or some power of mental synthesis is supposed to combine them into ideas—into things with a meaning. An object, stone, orange, tree, or chair, is supposed to convey different impressions of colour, shape, size, hardness, smell, taste, etc., which aggregated together constitute the characteristic meaning of each thing. But as matter of fact, it is the characteristic use to which the thing is put, because of its specific qualities, which supply the meaning with which it is identified. A chair is a thing which is put to one use; a table, a thing which is employed for another purpose; orange is a thing which costs so much, which is grown in warm climes, which is eaten, and when eaten has an agreeable odour and refreshing taste, etc.\n\nThe difference between an adjustment to a physical stimulus and a mental act is that the latter involves a response to a thing in its meaning; the former does not. A noise may make me jump without my mind being implicated. When I hear a noise and run and get water and put out a blaze, I respond intelligently; the sound meant fire, and fire meant the need of being extinguished. I bump into a stone and kick it to one side purely physically. I put it to one side for fear someone will stumble upon it, but intelligently; I respond to a meaning that the thing has. I am startled by a thunderclap whether I recognize it or not—more likely if I do not recognize it. But if I say, either out loud or to myself, that is thunder, I respond to the disturbance as a meaning. My behaviour has a mental quality. When things have a meaning for us, we mean (intend, propose) what we do: when they do not, we act blindly, unconsciously, and unintelligently.\n\nIn both kinds of responsive adjustment, our activities are directed or controlled. But in the merely blind response, the direction is also blind. There may be training, but there is no education. Repeated responses to recurrent stimuli may fix a habit of acting in a certain way. We all have many habits of whose import we are quite unaware since they were formed without our knowing what we were about. Consequently, they possess us, rather than them. They move us; they control us. Unless we become aware of what they accomplish and pass judgment upon the worth of the result, we do not control them. A child might be made to bow every time he met a certain person by pressure on his neck muscles, and bowing would finally become automatic. It would not, however, be an act of recognition or deference on his part, till he did it with a certain end in view—as having a certain meaning. And not till he knew what he was about and performed the act for the sake of its meaning could he be said to be \"brought up\" or educated to act in a certain way. To have an idea of a thing is thus not just to get certain sensations from it. It is to be able to respond to the thing in view of its place in an inclusive scheme of action; it is to foresee the drift and probable consequence of the action of the thing upon us and of our action upon it. To have the same ideas about things which others have, to be like-minded with them, and thus to be really members of a social group, is, therefore, to attach the same meanings to things and to acts which others attach. Otherwise, there is no common understanding and no community life. But in a shared activity, each person refers to what he is doing to what the other is doing and vice-versa. That is, the activity of each is placed in the same inclusive situation. To pull at a rope at which others happen to be pulling is not a shared or conjoint activity unless the pulling is done with the knowledge that others are pulling and for the sake of either helping or hindering what they are doing. A pin may pass in the course of its manufacture through the hands of many persons. But each may do his part without knowledge of what others do or without any reference to what they do; each may operate simply for the sake of a separate result—his own pay.\nThere is, in this case, no common consequence to which the several acts are referred, and hence no genuine intercourse or association, in spite of juxtaposition, and in spite of the fact that their respective doings contribute to a single outcome. But if each views the consequences of his own acts as having a bearing upon what others are doing and takes into account the consequences of their behaviour upon himself, then there is a common mind; a common intent in behaviour. There is an understanding set up between the different contributors; and this common understanding controls the action of each. Suppose that conditions were so arranged that one person automatically caught a ball and then threw it to another person who caught and automatically returned it; and that each so acted without knowing where the ball came from or went to. Clearly, such action would be without point or meaning. It might be physically controlled, but it would not be socially directed. But suppose that each becomes aware of what the other is doing, and becomes interested in the other\'s action and thereby interested in what he is doing himself as connected with the action of the other. The behaviour of each would then be intelligent; socially intelligent and guided. Take one more example of a less imaginary kind. An infant is hungry and cries while food is prepared in his presence. If he does not connect his own state with what others are doing, nor what they are doing with his own satisfaction, he simply reacts with increasing impatience to his own increasing discomfort. He is physically controlled by his own organic state. But when he makes a back-and-forth reference his whole attitude changes. He takes an interest, as we say; he takes notes and watches what others are doing. He no longer reacts just to his own hunger but behaves in the light of what others are doing for their prospective satisfaction. In that way, he also no longer just gives way to hunger without knowing it, but he notes, recognizes, or identifies his own state. It becomes an object for him. His attitude toward it becomes to some degree intelligent. And in such noting of the meaning of the actions of others and of his own state, he is socially directed.\n\nIt will be recalled that our main proposition had two sides. One of them has now been dealt with: namely, that physical things do not influence the mind (or form ideas and beliefs) except as they are implicated in action for prospective consequences. The other point is persons modify one another\'s dispositions only through the unique use they make of physical conditions. Consider first the case of so-called expressive movements to which others are sensitive; blushing, smiling, frowning, clinching of fists, and natural gestures of all kinds. In themselves, these are not expressive. They are organic parts of a person\'s attitude. One does not blush to show modesty or embarrassment to others, but because the capillary circulation alters in response to stimuli. But others use the blush, or a slightly perceptible tightening of the muscles of a person with whom they are associated, as a sign of the state in which that person finds himself, and as an indication of what course to pursue. The frown signifies an imminent rebuke for which one must prepare, or an uncertainty and hesitation which one must, if possible, remove by saying or doing something to restore confidence. A man at some distance is waving his arms wildly. One has only to preserve an attitude of detached indifference, and the motions of the other person will be on the level of any remote physical change which we happen to note. If we have no concern or interest, the waving of the arms is as meaningless to us as the gyrations of the arms of a windmill. But if interest is aroused, we begin to participate. We refer to his action to something we are doing ourselves or that we should do. We have to judge the meaning of his act in order to decide what to do. Is he beckoning for help? Is he warning us of an explosion to be set off, against which we should guard ourselves? In one case, his action means to run toward him; in the other case, to run away. In any case, it is the change he effects in the physical environment which is a sign to us of how we should conduct ourselves. Our action is socially controlled because we endeavour to refer what we are to do to the same situation in which he is acting.\n\nLanguage is, as we have already seen (ante, p. 15) a case of this joint reference of our own action and that of another to a common situation. Hence its unrivalled significance as a means of social direction. But language would not be this efficacious instrument were it not that it takes place upon a background of coarser and more tangible use of physical means to accomplish results. A child sees persons with whom he lives using chairs, hats, tables, spades, saws, ploughs, horses, and money in certain ways. If he has any share at all in what they are doing, he is led thereby to use things in the same way or to use other things in a way which will fit in. If a chair is drawn up to a table, it is a sign that he is to sit in it; if a person extends his right hand, he is to extend his; and so on in a never-ending stream of detail. The prevailing habits of using the products of human art and the raw materials of nature constitute by all odds the deepest and most pervasive mode of social control. When children go to school, they already have \"minds\"—they have knowledge and dispositions of judgment which may be appealed to through the use of language. But these \"minds\" are the organized habits of intelligent response which they have previously required by putting things to use in connection with the way other persons use things. The control is inescapable; it saturates disposition. The net outcome of the discussion is that the fundamental means of control is not personal but intellectual. It is not \"moral\" in the sense that a person is moved by a direct personal appeal from others, important as is this method at critical junctures. It consists of the habits of understanding, which are set up in using objects in correspondence with others, whether by way of cooperation and assistance or rivalry and competition. Mind as a concrete thing is precisely the power to understand things in terms of the use made of them; a socialized mind is the power to understand them in terms of the use to which they are turned in joint or shared situations. And mind in this sense is the method of social control.', '', '', 'inherit', 'closed', 'closed', '', '13367-revision-v1', '', '', '2023-04-23 14:35:56', '2023-04-23 14:35:56', '', 13367, 'https://teachers.com.ng/?p=13598', 0, 'revision', '', 0);
